Taila

Taila (Tailaluyera) is a constructed language developed as an experiment in various linguistic concepts. It was designed to be a non-tonal analytic language with a relatively simple phonemic inventory. As a fairly analytic language, it is rich in function words which can be somewhat tricky for English speakers; however, this analytic nature only applies to the grammar, while word formation can be highly synthetic. The lexicon has been influenced by many languages, most importantly English, Chinese, Tamil, Arabic, and Basque.

=Design= Taila was initially created to be an experiment into isolating/analytic languages like Chinese, Burmese, or Thai. Early grammars explored different ways to manipulate word order to express meaning, relying heavily on Asian influences in most aspects of the language: syntax, lexicon, phonology, et cetera. Eventually, however, Taila started to take on a different character in many ways. Tones were dropped, syllable structure was loosened, and word length was increased. Furthermore, the grammar took a turn toward the theoretical, marking not phrasal constituents like subject or object, but instead thematic relations like agent and patient. There are still many Asian-influenced parts of the language, such as its separation of tense, aspect, and mood or its lack of intrinsic number in most nouns. It does diverge somewhat greatly in its relative looseness in word order. Taila also shows a fair amount of agglutinative character in its formation of words.

=Phonology= Native English speakers should be familiar with many of the phonemes in Taila, especially most of the consonants; however, there are a few consonants and vowels that will have to be practiced and mastered.

Consonants
The sounds listed in the table below are the "standard" phonemes of the language, and do not show allophones that appear in certain environments. Where sounds are in pairs, the symbol to the left is unvoiced and the one to the right is voiced.

The palatal consonants will be the most difficult for English speakers because all except j are entirely foreign.

Vowels
There are five vowels which are not centralized in any syllables.

The phonemes /i/ and /u/ are sometimes reduced to /j/ and /w/ when placed between a consonant and another vowel (/bia/ becomes /bʲa/ and /lui/ becomes /lʷi/). The only true diphthongs are ai and au.

Orthography
The alphabet is listed below, along with the names of each letter:

Certain common digraphs and trigraphs also have their own names:

The last three letters from the English language that are missing in the Taila alphabet are /Cc/ esatta, /Qq/ ekatta, and /Xx/ ekse. These are only used in foreign words and names, and are fairly rare.

=Basic Grammar= Because Taila is an analytic language, it lacks any sort of declension or conjugation like in many Western languages. In order to express number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or anything else, separate particles must be added in the clause to indicate these.

Noun Functive Particles
After a noun phrase (a string of one or more nouns), a postpositional grammatical particle must be inserted to indicate the role of this phrase in the sentence. In English this is primarily done through word order (The baby ate it versus It ate the baby) and a modest amount of declension when dealing with pronouns (I vs me vs my vs mine). In Taila, the positioning of the noun phrase within the sentence is somewhat loose as long as it is properly marked for thematic role. Please note well that these particles do not show subject or object like in English, but instead agent, patient, etc.

The first six particles are collectively known as the "core" particles and must be fully understood before any sentences can be formed in Taila. As already mentioned, these particles do not show subject or object, instead they indicate thematic role. In the English sentence "Erika was pushed by Jesse", Erika may by the subject of the sentence but Jesse is the one doing the pushing, and thus would be labeled the agent. Erika is simply the receiver of the action, so she is known as the patient. Because the core is somewhat difficult to understand for English speakers, each particle will be discussed separately.

Oblique particle. This is close to a "neutral" particle and provides the least amount of information as to the noun phrase's role in the sentence. It is often used with very simple intransitive phrases and in the place of copular statements. The thematic role it describes is content or theme. ''I gave her the book. He likes cereal. The tree is tall.'' Some verbs only take nouns in the oblique as their subject. In colloquial speech, this particle can sometimes be dropped.

Inductive particle. When the agent and the patient of an action are identical, the inductive particle is used to indicate this relationship. '' You jumped. They danced to the song.'' In simple inductive intransitive statements, this particle can be replaced with the oblique particle to emphasize the action itself over the inductor when speaking colloquially.

Agentive particle. An agent is the willful initiator of an action affecting another party (typically the patient). Often this is equivalent to the subject of an active sentence or the object of a passive sentence in English. '' We pushed them. The mailman was bit by the dog .''

Patientive particle. A patient is the recipient or experiencer of an action initiated by another party (typically the agent), and undergoes a change of state due to this action. Often this is equivalent to the object of an active sentence or the subject of a passive sentence in English. ''We pushed them. The mailman was bit by the dog. The bird fell from the sky.'' Notice the lack of an agent in the last example sentence.

Effectuative particle. The effectuative particle shows the enabler of an action that causes a chain of events, ultimately resulting in the final stated action. Taking the sentence The man emptied the water from the tub, if the man is placed in the effectuative then it means he caused the tub to be emptied (probably by pulling the drain plug); if the man is placed the the agentive then it means he is actively removing water from the tub (possibly by pouring it out somehow).

Affective particle. This particle indicates a passive experiencer of an involuntary action. Typically it is used with the senses, emotional states, and bodily functions. '' The child coughs. The loud noise startled her. He was very upset.''

Choosing to use different thematic particles can change the way the sentence is translated into English completely. Often, this change is reflected in the verb used. For example, gödza is a verb indicating an act of sight and the "standard" way to use this verb is: Man– AFFECTIVE see book– OBLIQUE. The man sees the book. However, by toying with the thematic role of each of these nouns, different nuances can be described: Man– INDUCTIVE see book– OBLIQUE. Idiom.The man reads the book. Man– AGENTIVE see book– PATIENTIVE. The man watches/inspects the book. Man– INDUCTIVE see. The man looks (around). Man– EFFECTUATIVE see woman– AFFECTIVE book– OBLIQUE. The man causes the woman to see the book. (He shows her the book). Book– OBLIQUE see. The book is seen. The remaining particles are called the "periphery", and their use is fairly straightforward.
 * Konsa han gödza anul (ja).
 * Konsa su gödza anul (ja).
 * Konsa on anul tja gödza.
 * Konsa su gödza.
 * Konsa mön sinsa han gödza anul (ja).
 * Anul ja gödza.

Noun Possessive Particles
English possessives are quite ambiguous in many instances. If someone hears "Mark's jacket", they cannot know for sure the exact way that Mark relates to the jacket. Is this a jacket that he's currently wearing? Is it a jacket he bought? Is it one he personally designed? The possessive "Mark's" can indicate all of these things in English. In Taila, however, there are ways to distinguish some of these meanings from one another.

The possessive particle (se) is the most common of these four, and can be used in many situations. Typically, it refers to more temporary possession and does not indicate ownership. "Konsa se anul" (the man's book) may refer to a book that he's currently holding or reading, but does not show that he owns the book or that he authored it. The relative particle (djun) indicates that the "possessor" has somehow influenced the "possessed"—although using this terminology may be a little misleading because no ownership is implied. "Konsa djun anul" (the man's book) may refer to a book that he wrote or edited or simply has a connection to, but it does not show that he is reading it or holding it. The genitive particle (rai) is the particle that shows ownership, and it only shows ownership, nothing more. "Konsa rai anul" (the man's book) only indicates that it belongs to him.

Certain kinds of possessions, typically things intrinsic to the possessor that cannot be separated from him/her, do not need any sort of possessive particle. In order to say "the man's father", "konsa se baba", "konsa djun baba", and "konsa rai baba" are all incorrect because someone's father is an inalienable possession; in this case, "konsa baba''" is sufficient.

Numeral Classifiers
Taila, like many East Asian languages, makes extensive use of numeral classifiers to quantify countable nouns. A similar phenomenon is seen in English with words like rice. It doesn't make sense to say a rice, a countable quantifier must be inserted, for example a grain of rice. The word grain in this sentence is acting as a measure word. In Taila, a classifier is required whenever any noun is being assigned a number. In order to say "one rabbit", the phrase tonsai lai (rabbit one) is incorrect. The measure word appropriate for animals lanu must be used, making it tonsai lai lanu  (rabbit one- ANIMAL ). Sometimes nouns are used with their classifier in the absence of a number when talking generally; for example, tonsai lanu means "rabbits (in general)". Classifiers are also commonly used with demonstratives, which will be covered in the section below on demonstrative pronouns.

In order to further illustrate how classifiers are used, here is an example using the noun konsa (man) and its classifier min:

Sometimes, classifiers can be used alone when the context is clear. For example, "How many men are coming?" "Sen min" (Two). Other classifiers are almost always used alone, especially measurement classifiers. For example, "lai unte" (one year) and "sen kilometer" (two kilometers). Even these, though, are sometimes used with the appropriate noun: "vadzjam lai unte" (one year of time) and "dülje sen kilometer" (two kilometers of distance).

Personal Pronouns
There are two sets of personal pronouns that can be used in Taila which differ in formality. The formal pronouns are typically used in business settings, between strangers, when talking to large groups, and in most everyday situations. The familiar pronouns are used among close friends and family. Notice that there is a distinction made between inclusive and exclusive first person pronouns. English does not make this distinction in its pronouns, but it is fairly easy to learn. Exclusive pronouns can be thought of as "us WITHOUT you", and inclusive pronouns can be thought of as "us ALONG WITH you".

The bare form is the most common and it leaves number to be inferred from context. Often it indicates a singular or generic meaning, and when it is important to know further information about the specific number, quantifying particles can be added such as li and do and gu. The paucal particle do shows a few of something—generally no more than a handful. The collective particle is used when referring to a large group of something, especially when working together as a cohesive unit.

These pronouns should not be used in more formal situations because their use can be seen as overly familiar and unwarrated, sometimes even rude. Also worth noting is that siane can be written as two words, sia ne.

In highly formal situations, there is another pronoun that is used, üden. This pronoun is always paired with a demonstrative pronoun, and can refer to any of the three persons. Üden ni can mean "I/we", üden da can mean "you", and üden jo can mean "he/she/it/they".

Demonstrative Pronouns
English has a two-way distinction in demonstratives, but Taila makes a three-way distinction: proximal (this), medial (that), and distal (yonder). The base demonstrative pronouns are listed below. When these pronouns are being used as determiners, they should normally be placed immediately after an appropriate classifier. As an example, the noun ozain "house" is used along with its classifier sodo.

Relative Pronouns
English has many relative pronouns, but Taila doesn't use them at all. Instead, the particles an and dze are used to form subordinate clauses. For example, a gloss of "the man who likes Mary" would look like "man an likes Mary dze", and "the man whom Mary likes" would look like "man an Mary likes dze". There is another way to form subordinate clauses, which is by compounding, but this will be covered later.

Interrogative Pronouns
The only relative pronouns in Taila are: seja ("what?") and kamy ("which?"). The difference between these two lies in the nature of the objects they are describing. If it is an open set (ie, there are an indefinite number of options), then the pronoun seja is appropriate; for example, "What is your name?" would use seya because there isn't a limit to the number of names you can have. On the other hand, if it is a closed set (ie, there is a definite number of options), then use kamy; for example, imagine a teacher asking "Which students are absent?" because there are a limited number of students in the class. With only these two interrogative pronouns, in order to fulfill the roles of English interrogative pronouns like "where?" or "when?", they are combined with an appropriate measure word. Here are a few combinations to be aware of:

Adjectives and Adverbs
In practice, Taila makes no distinction between adjectives and adverbs. A single word like kyrip can be used to mean both "quick" and "quickly", depending on whether it happens to be modifying a noun or a verb or an adjective. This part of speech, however, does have a few things to watch out for.

First off, degrees of comparison are made by using the particles tonh "as/like", bi "more", dzü "most", and gyn "too/excessively". So, using the above example, the following can be constructed:

Second, when modifying a noun, adjectives normally follow the word they modify, but they can also be combined with the noun. In this case, the adjective appears before the noun, often with the infix -e- separating the two. This construction changes the restrictiveness of the adjective: from unspecified to restrictive. Again, English does not typically make this distinction. A non-restrictive adjective describes the noun without limiting its scope, whereas a restrictive adjective in addition to describing the noun also limits its scope. For example, the expression "the black pen" can refer to a pen which happens to be black, or it can point to a black pen as opposed to a pen of any other color. The former case is non-restrictive because it simply describes, and the latter is restrictive because it also separates this particular pen from others. Thus, in Taila, the expression konsa kyrip "the quick man" can be restrictive or non-restrictive, but kyripekonsa can only be restrictive.

Lastly, some words can only be used as either an adjective or an adverb, but these are typically fairly obvious because trying to use it in the other sense doesn't make sense. For example, nahüt "often" can only be used as an adverb.

Numbers
The numbers in Taila are fairly simple, and just amount to addition and multiplication.

Using this method, number names can get very long (654,321 is dju-rod-byn-nhua-vöt-hav-mau-rod-sen-nhua-lai). Often above 1000, the numbers are just read in order, so 654,321 becomes dju-bun-ved-mau-sen-lai or dju-bun-ved-hav-mau sen-lai and 50,403 is byn-ze-vöt-ze-mau or byn-ze-hav-vöt-ze-mau.

Ordinal numbers are easy to form. They are simply their cardinal counterpart preceded by the ordinating particle dai. So, "the first rabbit" is translated to tonsai dai lai lanu, and "the 27th rabbit" is tonsai dai sen-nhua-nüs lanu.

Verbs
In many languages, verbs are of two types: transitive and intransitive. However, in Taila, the transitivity of a verb depends on the number and type of nouns used in conjunction with it. The main distinction made among verbs is between stative verbs and functive verbs. Stative verbs behave very similarly to adjectives in English, but they are called verbs because they do technically fulfill the role of a verb. These often take nouns in the oblique as their arguments, and normally only express existential information. Functive verbs show an action, and use the full core as arguments.

Verbal Qualities
Unlike most Western languages, verbs do not conjugate to express tense, polarity, aspect or mood. Instead, particles are affixed around the verb or placed at specific points in the sentence to indicate these. Each quality will be reviewed below.

Tense
There are three tenses used in Taila, present, past and future. There is a particle for each of these tenses which is placed immediately before the verb, but tenses behave differently than in English. In English, every verb must share the same tense, but in Taila, once the tense has been specified it doesn't have to be mentioned again until the tense changes. The past tense particle is saban; so, hoi su kunon (I see) turns into hoi su saban kunon (I saw). The present tense particle is nin, but it is rarely used. Often, adverbs will be used like atano (now) to express this tense. If it is being used, then hoi su kunon becomes hoi su nin kunon. The future tense particle is tium; so, hoi su kunon is hoi su tium kunon. The past and future particles can be combined with helu to form the remote past (saban helu) and remote future (tium helu).

The tense particles can be negated to form the nonpast (du saban), nonpresent (du nin), and nonfuture (du tium) tenses.

Polarity
The affirmative polarity is standard, and shows that an action is happening, but there are two other polarities: negative and declarative. In order to negate a verb, the particle du is placed in front of the verb: hoi su kunon (I see) becomes hoi su du kunon (I don't see). The declarative particle yak is used to reaffirm that an action did happen: hoi su kunon (I see) becomes hoi su yak kunon (I do see).

Aspect
The aspect particles are placed immediately after the verb and they describe the temporal flow of the action. There are three true aspect particles which are used to express the continuous, perfective, and habitual aspects. Further aspects can be shown using adverbs.

Other aspects able to be shown with adverbs include: prospective, inceptive, pausative, resumptive, and cessative.

Mood
The modality of a verb is separate from tense in Taila, unlike in English. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult for English speakers to settle on the proper mood to use in a phrase. The mood particle appears at the end of the sentence, and it considered to be separate from the verb phrase. Thus, it can even appear when the verb in a sentence is dropped or implied. This is really only common with the interrogative particle, and is considered to be a colloquialism.

Notice that some moods have multiple uses. The renarrative mood also functions as the inferential mood, and the optative mood can be used as a cohortative mood.

Stative Verbs and Adjectives
Stative verbs can behave as either verbs or adjectives in Taila. As verbs, they show a current state or property of the noun in the oblique. They typically have no duration or endpoint, so aspects as not used with them. The only difference from functive verbs are the way tense is expressed. The regular tense particles are only used for additional emphasis; instead, stative verbs normally will take their own tense particles which are rarely dropped. The additional past tense particle is munghe, and the additional future tense particle is ferro.

As adjectives, the stative verb is placed immediately after the modified noun. For example, ongh tiriste ya (man tall OBL ) means "the tall man".

Regardless of the manner the stative verb is being used (verb or adjective), degree particles can be added. Equatives, comparatives, superlatives, and excessives can be formed by prefixing the stative verb with one of these particles: gen (as), kimo (more), yaga (less), estat (most), paira (too). So, "I am told the man was too tall" would be: Ongh ya munghe paira tiriste rua.

Verb Serialization
Verbs can be combined sequentially to create more complex actions, similarly to Chinese and many African languages. This is not completely foreign to English speakers, as English has constructions such as "I want to go get some food" where "go" and "get" are serialized. In Taila, a group of serialized verbs is treated as a single verb, and the whole group must share a uniform tense, polarity, aspect, mood, and topic.

Some verbs, called co-verbs, can only be used when combined with other (co-)verbs through serialization because their meaning is too vague when alone. Co-verbs are a subset of functive verbs. For example, zak is a co-verb that means "to move", and tia is a co-verb that means "to get away from". Neither can be used alone, so they are joined to make the serial verb: tia zak or "to go". Sometimes a specific co-verb will have an antonym, and simply switching a single co-verb can alter the entire meaning. The antonym to tia is xoi, so the antonym of tia zak is xoi zak or "to come".

All verbs, stative and functive, can be serialized. Often, stative verbs are combined with functive verbs to allow for the use of aspect.

Sentence Structure
The sentence structure of Taila is fairly loose for an analytic language. In some regards, it is more loose than in English. However, there are many rigid rules when forming a sentence. The generic template for a sentence is:
 * {|class="wikitable"

! colspan="2" | Topic ! colspan="3" | Verb ! rowspan="2" | Adverbs ! colspan="5" | Noun Phrases ! rowspan="2" | Mood Notice that the verb is normally placed as the second-most item of a sentence. In most sentences, there is one thematic role promoted to the topic of the sentence, and it is placed first; however, this is not required. When there is not a nominal topic, the verb itself is emphasized over any of the adjoining noun phrases.
 * Noun Phrase
 * Particle
 * Tense
 * Verb Root
 * Aspect
 * Phrase
 * Particle
 * Phrase
 * Particle
 * etc.
 * }
 * }

Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses are formed with the mat ... lo subordinating construction, and are positioned immediately before the noun modified. In a mat ... lo construction, a full sentence can be inserted. Immediately after the mat, the modified noun's thematic role is specified, followed by the remaining noun phrases. The verb goes last, just before the lo. Then, if necessary, the thematic role of the dependent clause can be indicated after the particle lo. Mat liaxare zi tia zak lo ongh han kunon stariam ya means "The man who is going to the store spots a book."

Copular Statements
There is no verb equivalent to the English verb "to be". Instead, copular statements are formed using the noun particles. The particle used is chosen based on the meaning, and then both pieces of the statements are placed side-by-side in this thematic role. For example, "The man is Bob." would be Ongh ya Bob ya. "I am at the store" would be Hoi vei liaxare vei.

=Dictionary= Due to the somewhat strange parts of speech to an English speaker, here is an explanation of the way words will be listed in the dictionary:

If at any point additional usage notes are necessary, they will be written within angular brackets (<>).

Two topical sections have been included on this page, but further words must be looked up in the dictionary.

People – Konsa
konsa n. person, human, human being, homo sapien

ongh n. man, male human, adult man

pane n. woman, female human, adult woman

adam sv. to be young; to have lived for only a few years

ondam n. boy, male human child 

pandam n. girl, female human child 

dandam n. human child

lasin sv. to be old ; to have lived for many years

onsin n. old man, male senior 

pansin n. old woman, female senior 

sinsin n. old human

ba/baba n. father, dad, step-father, male parent

ma/mama n. mother, mom, step-mother, female parent

son/sonson n. brother, step-brother, half-brother, male sibling

tun/tuntun n. sister, step-sister, half-sister, female sibling

niom/nioniom n. son, male child

lian/lialian n. daughter, female child

When using kinship terms, the single syllable form is used when referring to one's own relatives, and the double syllable forms are for others' relatives.

Time – Zalauk
zalauk n. time, passage of time 

nok zalauk n. a point in time, moment

nghera n. day

sanai n. day of the week

sanai lai n. Monday

sanai sen n. Tuesday

sanai mau n. Wednesday

sanai ved n. Thursday

sanai bun n. Friday

sanai pre n. Saturday

sanai tip n. Sunday

tip sv. to be last, final, ultimate

newa sv. to be first, initial, primary

badio n. week

sariun n. month

sariun lai n. January

sariun sen n. February

sariun mau n. March

sariun los lai n. November

sariun tip n. December

tianum n. year

daha n. hour

elde n. minute

dioti n. second

xaum mw. for temporal words: day, month, year

The date is expressed from shortest to longest component. So, March 25, 2004 would be Nghera Sen Los Bun, Sariun Mau, Tianum Sen Daus Ved which is normally written either Nghera 25 Sariun 3 Tianum 2004 or 25/3/2004. The same phenomenon can be observed with time. So, 6:19 can be elde los hin daha pre; however, this time would normally be said daha pre elde los hin to conform with the numerical representation.

=Example text= Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Konsa zara ti saban yensiato avat partil bu biniam i halid zi. Sam diaran ti aidi bu wastun i midix ya. Sonson ya nin kiotet no sam diaran tomo tiau.
 * All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.