Ćín

General Information
Proto-Çin, [tʃin], as the name suggests, is the proposed parent language of the Çin language family. It is believed to have been spoken around 13,000 years ago in the Çinǝl (Chinel, [tʃinəl]) valley. It was first discovered by Calistos Malia ([kalɪsθos mãlja]) in 6253 and has been developed by linguists over the past 150 years. The Çin language family is currently spoken by around 11.5 billion language speakers today and consists of about 25% of the world's languages, though it makes up about 63% of all language speakers due to how widespread those languages are.

While the langauge was written, the script is not able to be typed; this transliteration (suggested by Malia) be will be used instead. There were two variants of Proto-Çin, formal (used in legal matters) and colloquial (used in everday matters). This page focuses on formal Proto-Çin. Differences will be pointed out when applicable.

Changes between Early and Late Proto-Çin

 * [f] and [v] became separate phonemes.


 * [tʲ] and [dʲ] became [tjV] and [djV]


 * [mṇ] became [m͡n].
 * [CC̣] > [CaC] or [CəC].


 * The ablative and allative cases began to merge

TBD

Hopefully this is a thorough overview of the language (there's more in the phonology section then ever before :).


 * While I don't have examples up yet, I will put them up when the language is developed enough.

Consonants
Proto-Çin's 23 consonants are listed below. The orthography is written next to them in bold. There are relatively few consonants in Proto-Çin. 1It is believed that [f] and [v] are allophones in colloquial speech, however, recoverd documents suggested that the official prounciation was closer to [v] than [f]


 * Palatal consonants can't end words, nor can they be follwed by /i/, another palatal consonants, /jV, jV:, wV, or wV:/.


 * n becomes palatal before a /jV or jV:/ diphthong and the cluster becomes /ɲV ~ nʲV/ (a long vowel is shortened).

Consonant clusters
Proto-Çin forms relatively few consonant cluster, and many are only allowed after vowel. Consonant clusters allowed at the beginning of a word are marked with *. They are listed below.

/kt/ - ct

/st/ - st*

/zt/ - zt

/lt/ - lt

/ʃt/ - şt*

/sp/ - sp

/sk/ - sc

/ʃp/ - şp*

/Pl/ - Pl* (P is a non palatalized consonant).

Any other case where two consonants are written next to each other are one of the following, though these cases are rare.

1) If the two consonants are different, the second consonat is a syllabic consnant (lownis* is ['lɔ.wṇ.is]).

2) If the two consnants are the same, it is a geminated consonant. (lowwis* is ['lɔ.w:is])


 * Not real words, just examples.

Vowels
Proto-Çin's 19 vowels are listed below along with the accepted dipthongs (V is a vowel). As with consonants, the orthography is written next to them in bold.
 * [e, ɛ, and a] become [ẽ, ɛ̃, and ã] before /m and n/.

Syllable
Because of the restriction on consonant clusters, syllables in Proto-Çin are simple. Note that if a syllabic consonant is the nucleus, the syllable may not contain another consonant (unless that consonant forms a cluster with the syllable  nucleus).

(C)V/C̣(C)

This leads to a possible syllables (once again, these are just hypothetical syllables, not actual words)

V Syllable

Clani - ['klan.i]

CV Syllable

Şatəl - ['ʃa.təl]

CVC Syllable

At̆el - ['a.tʲel]

C̣ syllable

lownis - ['lɔw.ṇ.is]

CC̣ syllable (extremely rare)

Knes - [kṇ.'es]

CC̣C syllable (less rare than CC̣, but still rare)

Vspal - ['vṣp.al]

Stress
Stress in Proto-Çin is very simple. Stress usually falls on the first syllable. However, if that syllable is a CC̣ syllable, the stress falls on the next syllable. Irregualr stress will be marked with an acute accent (V́), but stress is usually regular..

Double Stress
Exceedingly rare, it is possible for a word to have extra stress on the first syllable if the word before it is CC̣ (and no stress on the CC̣ word). This is usually realized as a rising pitch on the syllable.

Ex. Mn Z̧āmc - [mṇ ''ʒã:.mḳ ], the name of a king.

Sandhi
While not extremely prevalent or complicaated, sandhi did occur at word boundries between a final vowel and a, ą, or i. This resulting in a liquid being placed between the two words, j for between a final vowel and a, w between a final vowel and ą, and l between a final vowel and i. Despite the fact it is written on the first word, it is pronunced with the second world (see below). While not written in colloquial Proto-Çin, it was written in formal Proto-Çin. For reasons unknown, it was always written as l. Example: cįnyl ąnim - (a) pretty plant, ['kɪ.ny 'wɑ.nim] vs. cįnoiz̧n ąnimai - from (some) pretty plants, ['kɪ.nɔɪ.ʒn̩ 'ɑ.ni.maɪ]. Sandhi was mandatory when applicable.

While it did not serve a grammatical function, it did generate irregularities in daughter languages.

Word Order
Due to its well-developed case system, Proto-Çin allowed for almost free word order; however, word order in the main clause was commonly VOS, and VSO in sub-clauses. There was no inversion during questions. Dependent clauses are always inserted after the part of the sentence about which they give sentence and/or modify.

Nominal Phrase
Proto-Çin is a head-initial language, meaning the head of the phrases goes first. In a nominal phrase, the noun is usually the first word in the phraes, followed by most adjectives, other modifying information, and possibly a postposition. Most adjectives went behind the noun; however, numbers came before the noun. The full order is listed below, though the phrase does not need to include every item listed below.

Number + "Good" (or inflected forms) + Head Noun + Posessing (Genitive) nouns + Other modifying adjectives + Postposition

Modifying adjectives (except numbers, which are indeclinable) agree in number, gender, and, unless in the genitive case, case with the head noun.

Genitive Phrase
The genitive phrase is very simple, the genitive simply follows the noun it is modifying.

Verbal Phrase
While not required, the verb phrase often comes at the beginning of the sentence, with the main verb always at the head of the phrase, with auxillary verbs following the main verb. Adverbs and other modifying information. then follow the main verb (or auxillary verb if there is one). Object pronouns are considered part of the verb phrase, and always go at the end of the main phrase.

Reflexive verbs consist of the main verb conjugated + the reflexive pronoun.

Overview
Nouns in Proto-Çin inflect for number, case, and definiteness, eliminating the need for articles; they also show gender, indicated by the stem of the noun. Nouns have 4 stems, which must be memorized. The dictionary entry of a noun is the definite nominative singular.

Gender

Gender in Proto-Çin is not "gender" in the classical sense, but rather a noun's classification. There are 5 genders in Proto-Çin: animate, living, natural, celestial, and inanimate. The animate gender is reserved for nouns that are both living and able to move, that is animals and humans. The living gender is reserved for nouns that are alive, but are unable to move. The natural gender is for nouns that are not living but that are not man-made, such as wood, water, fire, etc. The celestial gender is for nouns that are in the sky or space. Finally, the inanimate gender includes every other noun. Each noun is made up of 3 parts: the root, which indicates meaning; the stem, which indicates gender and definiteness; and the suffix, which indicates case and number. These are always in the structure:

Root - Stem - Suffix

Because it is easy to identify these 3 parts, they will not be split up with dashes on this page, but are in the dictionary entry of each word.

It is important to memorize the gender of a noun because adjectives and verbs must agree with a noun in gender. The gender of a noun is based on its stem, but many nouns have irregular gender (for example, fire, air, and water are "animate" nouns), and natural and living nouns usually share a stem. However, because gender is usually based on definition, memorizing gender is a relatively easy process.

Nouns are separated into declension by gender.

Number

Nouns can have one of 4 numbers: single, dual, plural, and mass. The singular form of a noun is used, as expected, when there is only of the noun. The dual form of a noun, contrary to its name, is used when they are 2 - 3 of a noun (also when there are a few, some, etc.). The plural and mass forms are both used when there is a lot of a noun; however, the plural form is used when the number of items is known or is possible to be determined. The mass form is used when the number of items is unable to be determined.

Case

There are 9 cases in Proto-Çin: Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive, Vocative, Instrumental, Ablative, Allative, and Locative. Other cases are expressed using prepositions + another case.

The instrumental case, in addition to marking a noun as being used in an action and marking association, it can also be used to turn the noun into another part of speech.

The table below detailes the general use of each case, along with its gloss and the required stem.

For unknown reasons, the indefinite vocative does not appear to inflect for number. This might be due to a sound change from Pre-Proto-Çin.

As mentioned above, knowns have 4 stems. The definite and indefinite A-stems are used for the Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive, and Vocative cases. The definite and indefinite B-stems ar used for the Instrumental, Ablative, Allative, and Locative cases. These 4 stems make up the 4 principle parts of the noun and must be memorized.

Definiteness
Definiteness in Proto-Çin is very simple; nouns are definite (the) or indefinite (a/an). The difference between definite and indefinite is a stem change.

Compound Nouns
New words could be made by "gluing together" other words. There was a system for this in Proto-Çin. In every compound noun, the first noun looses the stem, retaining just the root. It is then glued onto the next noun, which retains its stem. If the first noun ends in a consonant and the second noun begins in a consonant, a vowel is inserted between them. While the stem of the new noun does not change, its gender may change. If the gender of the new noun is different from the gender indicated by the stem, the new gender is favored and the noun becomes irregular, declining for that gender.

During the synthesis process, the nouns are considered two words and sandhi applies.

1st Declension
1st Declension nouns are for nouns of the animate gender. Their definite A-stem is -a, their indefinite A-stem is -ā, their definite B-stem is -es, and their indefinite B-stem is -oiz̧. Their declension is listed below.

Example noun Endings

2nd Declension
The 2nd declension is for nouns of living gender. While these nouns share a stem with the natural gender, much of their declensions are different. The definite A-stem is -y, the definite B-stem is -ō, the indefinite A-stem is -ȳ, and the indefinite B-stem is '''-yz̧. '''

Example noun Endings

3rd Declension
3rd Declension nouns are nouns of the natural gender and had stems identical to those of the living gender ('''-y, -ō, ȳ, yz̧). '''Their declensions were laregely the same and are listed below. The different declensions have been highlighted below Endings The second insturmental declenion is only used when the instrumental case is being used as an adjective.

4th Declension
The 4th declension nouns are nouns of the celestial gender are a much smaller class of nouns. They also tend to be more irregular than nouns of other genders. Despite the small number of nouns in this gender, there are two sets of stems. The first set of stems are -e (Definite A-stem), -ē (Definite B-stem), -æ (Indefinite A-stem), and -æv (Indefinite B-stem). Due to the fact that, from the perspective of the ancient spekers of Proto-Çin, the stars appeared to move on their own, some 4th declension nouns also have the same stem as first declension nouns (-a, ā, es, oiz̧). However, both stems are conjugated the same way. Endings

5th Declension

The 5th declension nouns are nouns of the inanimate gender. Their stems are -vi (Definite A-stem), -şæ (Definite B-stem), -li (Indefinite A-stem), and -z̧æ (Indefinite B-stem). Due to the different stem pattern, 5th declension nouns are sometimes called "consonantal nouns " and nouns of the other declensions are sometimes called "vocalic nouns." Endings

Pronouns
It is believed that pronouns are closer to adjectives than nouns, as they are very similar to the instrumental endings for each gender. Declension

Only the singular pronouns are listed here, but the declension pattern is the same for all pronouns for all persons.

Adjectives
There are two types of adjectives in Proto-Çin: Modifier (Dependent) Adjectives and Instrumental Adjectives. While their roles in sentences are somewhat different, their declension patterns are identical (though instrumental adjectives may insert a "linking" vowel between the stem and the declension).

Modifier Adjectives
Modifier adjectives are adjectives that cannot stand on their own and are not derived from a noun, such as hāliį, slow. They must modify a noun to exist in the sentence. While there are a wide variety of stems, they are easy to detect as they do not contain the stem for a noun.

Instrumental Adjectives
Instrumental adjectives are adjectives that are derived from a noun and can exist on their own (often in lieu of a noun). Depdending on their rule in a sentence, they follow two different declension patterns. If it is standing alone, it declines as the same gender as the noun it is derived from. If it is modifying another noun, it declines like a modifier adjective.

When used on their own in a sentence, they can serve as both a noun and an adjective at the same time, as they can indicate the level of "intensity" (see below).

Features
Both adjectives (when serving as a modifier) decline to agree in number, gender, and case (but not definiteness) as the noun they are modifying. They both follow the same declension pattern when acting as modifiers, an ending attatched to the stem. Adjectives also decline to show "intensity." There are 5 levels of intensity: superlative dimunitive, dimunitive, normal, comparative, and superlative and serve two purposes. The first purpose is to provide information and the second purpose is in declensions. They are indicated by placing an infix between the root and the stem (see below). Comparisons in Proto-Çin used the inflected form of the adjective + įn (than, not to be confused with in, then).

Like nouns, adjectives are made in the form:

root + stem + endings

The dictionary form is the nominative singular

The root indicates the meaning, the stem indicates the gender, and the ending indicates the case. There are two adjective declensions, one for vocal roots and one for consonantal roots.

Declensions I
Declensions I is for vocal roots. The 1st stem is -sa- and agrees with animate nouns, the second stem is -ca- and agrees with living nouns, the 3rd stem is -ta- and agrees with natural nouns, the 4th stem is -ma- and agrees with celestial nouns, and the 5th stem is -lį- and agrees with inaminate nouns. The declensions is the same for each stem, so only       -sa- stem adjectives will be sown in the example. Example is lacesa, -ca, -ta, -ma, -lį: tall

Normal Adjectives Superlative Diminutive Adjectives Dimunitive Adjectives Comperative Adjectives Superlative Adjectives

Declension II
Declension two adjectives are adjectives that a cosnonantal root. The stems for these adjectives are il, im, em, in, and ic for declension I - V nouns respectively. The example is çalil, -im, -em, -in, -ic, green.

Normal Adjectives Superlative Dimunitive Adjectives Dimunitive Adjectives Comparative Adjectives Superlative Adjectives

Verbs
Verbs are the most complex part of Proto-Çin grammar. They conjugate for 3 persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and 4 numbers (Singular, Dual, Plural, and Mass) as one might expect. They also conjugate for 6 moods: Indicative, Declarative (rare), Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, and Conditional. There are 6 aspects: simple, perfective, perfect, imperfect, habitual, and progressive; and 3 tenses: past, present, and future. Finally, a verb conjugates for voice (active vs. passive).

Verbs are formed slightly differently from nouns. They consist of 3 parts, but these parts are different:

Root + Infinitive + Aspect Marker + Ending. The stem of the verb is similar to the root of a noun or adjective, it conveys the meaning of the word and is called the infinitive. The aspect marker indicates the aspect of the verb and the ending indicates the number, person, tense and mood.

Verbs have different infinitives depending on the transivitiy; transitive verbs have separate stems from intransitive verbs. For a verb that can be transitive or intransitive, the stem changes depending on it's meaning in a sentence. There are also separate realis (Indicative, Imperative and Declarative. The imperative is considered a realis mood in Proto-Çin grammar). and irrealis (Subjunctive, Optative, and Conditional) infinitives.

The stem in the passive voice is the passive participle upon which the endings are attatched (but this is different from the infinitive). This is an important distinction.

It is also important to keep in mind a construct describing the state of a noun (He is liked, The store is closed, etc.) and the passive voice (He is being killed by her). Sometimes, both constructs are valid, but changed the meaning. The state of a noun describes a general attribute of the noun, the passive voice describes the noun at a single instant. The passive voice is also used for its normal role.

There is one coupla, c̆av and a few auxiliary verbs, such as stav (to be able to), linav (might), and ciav (should, must). Auxiliary verbs are always follwed by a realis or irrealis infinitive. As in most languages, these verbs are quite irregular. C̆av and Stav are the only verbs in the language with irregular endings, all other irregulars are stem changers.

Non-Finite Forms
There are two conjugations for transitive and one conjugation for intransitive verbs. Each conjugation has its own infinitives and participles. These must be memorized and make up the stem (root + infinitive) of the verb.

For all verbs, the gerund conjugates like a normal noun and the participle conjugate like a normal adjective. Generally the active participle is used to form adjectives, but there are some verbs where the passive participle is used.

Conjugation I

This conjugation is the only conjugation for intransitive verbs. Its non-finite forms are listed below Conjugation II

This conjugation is the first conjugation for transitive verbs. It is for verbs that end in a vowel. Conjugation III

This conjugation is the second conjugation for transitive verbs. It is for verbs that end in a consonant.

Sound Changes in the Çin language family
Proto - Çin to Proto-Shalax ['ʃa:l.aks]

ɑ -> a /_

i:, y: -> i: /_

y -> ɪ / _

aɪ -> i: /_

eʊ -> e: /#_

e ʊ -> u: /_#

wV -> V: /_

tʃ -> ʃ /_a, a:,  ɛ,  ɛ:

d ʒ ->  ʒ/_a, a:,  ɛ,  ɛ:

v ~ f -> v /_i, i:, e, e:, u, u:,  ɔ

v ~ f -> f /_

CʲV -> CjV: /_

p, t, c -> b, d, g /_a,  ɛ, a:,  ɛ:

b, d, g -> bl, d ʒ,  ɲ/_i, i:, e, e:

s -> ç /_i, i:, e, e:

z -> s/_i, i:, e, e:

CC̣ -> CəC/_