Lutanian

The Lutanian language is a Romance based modern conlang with slight influences from other languages like Slavic and Germanic. The Latin script is used for notation.

I. Reading and writing guide

§1. The alphabet and pronunciation

The conlang uses Latin script, with the letter W unused. The official alphabet introduces a character with the circumflex diacritic - Ŷ ŷ /d͡ʑa/ ~ /j͡ʝa/, or simply /j:a/, after the letter Y y.

The alphabet consists of 26 letters:

1.1. Vowels

In stressed positions, the syllable bearing vowels have these values (with varying vowel openness):

a          /a/ ~ /ɑ/

e          /e/ ~ /ɛ/                        (not word finally)

i, y       /i/, consonant position: /j/

o          /o/ ~ /ɔ/

u          /u/, as a semi-consonant /w/          (û or u intervocallically)

â, î       /ə/

î           between vowels: consonant value /j/ (the â doesn't perform this function)

1.1.1. Vowel reduction

As a grammatical rule, word final -e is reduced to /ə/ or /ɐ/, also in the final syllable -es /əs/ ~ /ɐs/.

In the word final diphthong -ei (as a word ending), the -e- is optionally reduced: /ej/ or /əj/.

The syllable bearing -e- in other unstressed syllables is optionally reduced (consistently, depending on region or speaker's preference).

As a grammatical rule, word final -a is always pronounced /a/.

Word internal syllable bearing -a- in other unstressed syllables can be optionally reduced to /ɐ/.

Syllable bearing unstressed -i- can be pronounced as /ɪ/ by regional preference (the standard is /i/).

Syllable bearing unstressed -o- can be pronounced as /u/ by regional preference (the standard is /o/).

1.1.2. Vowel combinations and diphtongs

The only written vowel combination pronounced as a simple vowel is:

-ai-  (without diacritics) pronounced always as /ɛ/ (word internally) or /e/ (word finally).

The openness of the vowel varies, and it is never reduced to /ə/.

Employing diacritics produces a diphtong:

-aî- ,-ài- /a̯j/,               ái         /aɪ/

The syllable bearing diphtong -ei- /ej/ word internally is optionally treated as a simple vowel, just like "e" (with the existing possibility of a reduction to /ə/ in unstressed syllables).

eimà  /ej.'ma/ ~ /ə.'ma/      - to love

reine   /rej.nə/ ~ /re:.nə/      - queen

There are words with the combination -ei- in separate syllables:

ei         /'e.i/ -they (pronoun, masc.) (stem e-, ending -i)

There are 15 possible diphtongs combining a, e, i, o, u

(aî, âi, au, ea/ia, ei, eu, ie, io, iu, oa/ua, oi, ou, ue, ui, uo [ô]);

- double letters don't appear and diphtongs

- there are no diphtongs like  ae, ao , oe .

Diphtongs are read as written with a strong (stressed) component (a /a/, e /e/ or o /o/, including â /ə̯/, except in -ea-, -oa-) and a weak component (unstressed i /i/, u /u/).

In a diphtong made of i and u the "u" is stressed if not indicated otherwise by diacritical marks.

-ea-, -oa- have the first component unstressed:

-ea-     /ja/ ~ /e̯a/

-oa-     /wa/ ~ /o̯a/

There are words with the combination -ea- in separate syllables:

ea       /'e.a/    - she (pronoun, masc.) (stem e-, ending -a).

A diacritical mark can change the stressed part of a diphtong in a stressed syllable, or break a diphtong into two syllables:

iu         /ju/                   íu         /iw/

ui         /uj/                  uí        /wi/

où       /u/

Breaking diphtongs: example: ía, íe /'i.a/, /'i.ə/. If a stressed syllable contains a diphtong, it may be marked by a graphic accent and pronounced by the rules: example: iú /ju/.

The combination of -où- is regarded as a simple vowel /u:/ by some users, others might avoid such a combination.

'''1.1.3. Tonic stress marks (acute/grave accent)I. Reading and writing guide '''

The accute and grave accents mark tonic stress on a syllable (including stressed diphtongs)

The graphemes: á, é, í, ó, ú generally mark not particularly short vowels /a/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /u/.

The graphemes

à          /a̯/,

è          /ɛ/ ~ /ɛ̯/,

ò          /ɔ̯/ ~ /o̯/,

ù          /u̯/

usually mark shorter vowels, the only exception are the short verbal infinitives with final -à /a:/ or -è /e:/, or as expected regular -í /i:/).

A tonic è /ɛ/ is distinguished by pronunciation from é /e/, as in French, but only optionally, depending on speaker's preference.

The distribution of tonic /ɛ/ vs. /e/ represented by -e- is not prescribed and depends on speaker's own habits and native language. However, it the conlang words è marks a relatively shorter vowel, while é tends to be pronounced in longer duration.

The combination of -où- is regarded as a simple vowel /u:/ by some users, others might avoid such a combination.

The stressed syllable is marked by graphic accent (accute/ grave) only if it's in an unpredicted position. If the stress is on the vowels â, î, an additional mark cannot be placed.

1.1.3.1. Representations of -ia /ja/, -ie /je/

The diphtongs -ia /ja/ and -ie /je/ have a special symbol:

ǎ          /ja/, unstressed /jɐ/ (except word finally)

ě          /je/, unstressed /jə/

The unstressed syllables with D, N, R, T + -ǎ, -ě, are written by moving the caron symbol to the consonant (Ď, Ň, Ř, Ť)

ĎE / ďe          /djə/ ~ /djə/

ňe                   /ɲə/

ře                    /rjə/ ~ /rjə/ ~ /j:ə/

ŤE / ťe             /tjə/ ~ /tɕə/ ~ /tjə/

See the chapter on consonants for more. With the rest of the consonants the diphtongs -ia, -ie are always written ǎ/ě (except after palatal consonants).

An alternative norm is to write: -ia, -ie for unstressed diphthongs (after D, N, R, T - 'a or - 'e), and iá, ié for stressed (after D, N, R, T, -ia or -ie). The ortographical forms -ǎ, -ě, are not used after palatal sounds of  g-/ʒ/, x-/ʃ/, ll- /ʎ/, nor ď, ň, ř, and ť.

1.1.4. Ogonek vowels (optional nasals)

The ogonek vowels ą, ę, ų typically mark original sequences with -m or -n like am, an, em, en, um, un.

The grammatical role in nominal words is to mark the direct object (accuative case) in the singular, which is also performed by adding an -n after an ordinary vowel (-a(n), -e(n), -u(n)).

The pronunciation is long (word finally) and optionally nasal:

ą          /ɑ:/ ~ /ɑ̃:/ ~ /õ:/             /au̯/

ę          /ɛ:/ ~ /ẽ:/ ~ /ɛ̃:/, /e/,      /ɛɐ̯/      not word finally

ų          /u:(w̃)/ ~ /ɔ:/ ~ /ɔ̃/        /uɐ̯/

The pronunciation values are not reduced in unstressed syllables.

męs     /mẽ:(n)s/ ~ /mɛ(n)s/ ~ /mɛɐ̯s/             month

męse /-ə/                                                       a table, a dining room or a small restaurant

pęt      /pẽ:(n)t/ ~ /pɛ(n)t/ ~ /pɛɐ̯t/                   five (number)

Word internal pronunciation and marking is not crucial, it may be completely oral:

męs(e) /'me:s(ə)/, pęt /pe:t/. Word final -ę can be pronounced as /e/, if a clear distinction is made from final -e /ə/.

Word final -an, -en, -on can be used as replacements for -ą, -ę and -ų, with proper pronunciation (unreduced /en/).

1.2. Consonants

The consonant pronounced as in English are: B, D, F, K, L, M, N, P, T, V, Y (as /j/) Z (as /z/).

The consonants b, d, g, p, t, k are generally unaspirated. The intervocalic d may be pronounced as /ð/.

Special pronunciations:

-      B̌ / b̌ represents semiconsonantal /w/ (just like û) in some words with etymological -b-, like pob̌l /powl/ - people (alternative spellings B', b')

-      C as /k/ in ca-, câ-, co- cu-, and /s/ in ci, ce, cî (the combination cai is not used)

-      QU- is /k/ in all combinations in front of a vowel: -a, -e, -i, -o, -u, y /i/, â, î; qû- represents /kw/

-      CC is /ts/, /t͡s/ or /ks/ (depending on region).

-      Ç is always /s/ (c-cedille)

-      Ď, ď is /dj/ ~ /dj/ ~ /dʑ/ (alternative D' and d')

-      G as /ɡ/ in ga- gâ-, go-, gu-, and /ʒ/ in gi, ge, gî (the combination gai is not used)

-      gu- is /g/ in all combinations in front of a vowel: -a, -e, -i, -o, -u, y /i/, â, î; gû- represents /gw/

-      the combinations -ig-/-îg- after a vowel are pronounced as /d͡ʒ/

-      H is a mute letter, if pronunciation is needed: hh = /h/

-      J is /ʒ/, in some dialects /j/

-      LL is /ʎ/ or /j/ (region dependent)

-      Ň is /ɲ/

-      R is an alveolar trill /r/ or tap /ɾ/ (region dependent)

-      RR and word initial r- is an alveolar trill /r/

-      -Ř- is /rj/ ~ /rj/ ~ /j:/

-      S is /s/, intervocallically /z/ (regionally also /s/)

-      SS is always /s:/

-      Š or sh, sx, sj is /ʃ/ (alternative spellings, in front of consonant write Š or SH)

-      Ť / ť is /tj/ ~ /tj/ ~ /t͡ɕ/, (alternative spellings T', t')

-      tx, tg is /tʃ/, intervocallically /dʒ/ (alternative spelling is č)

-      ti+vowel = /sj/ or /t͡sj/

-      X is /ʃ/ in xi, xe, xî, combinations -ix, îx after a vowel /(j)ʃ/, otherwise /ks/, word-initial /s/ (xa, xâ, xo, xu)

-      Ŷ is / j͡ʝ/, for some speakers /j:/,a part of the alphabet. Alternative spelling is -ii- or --yy-, it doesn't appear word-initially (except in the letter name).

1.2. Word stress

The default word stress is on the penultimate syllable of immutable words, or:

-      on the penultimate syllable of mostof the typical mutable words with a stem and a single syllable grammatical ending (the ending -es or -os can be used for typical plurals, or -es for verbal 2nd person sg.):

Examples:

case(s)           /'ka.zə(s)/                   house(s)

cugine(s)       /ku.'ʒi.nə(s)/               kitchen(s)

muros             /'mu.ros/, /'mu.rus/   walls

natiúnes        /na.'t͡sju.nəs/               nations

compares     /kom.'pa.rəs/              you compare (sg., present tense)

Most of the examples retain the same place of stress in other forms with less syllables (like natiú - a nation) but some categories depend on grammar rules:

-      adjectives with masculine forms in -ic /ik/ take that form as the base, and retain the same stress in longer forms: like

melodic, classic, oceanic/os.'ja.nik/, biologic, politic, nàutic /'naw.tik/

(fem. melódica, classica, oceànica, biológica, politica, nàutica). The nouns usually follow a regular system; melodía, biología /-'i.a/.

-      professions containing the prefix + logos-root base their accent on the shortest form in -log: biolog - a biologist, the accent is maintained in biólogos (biologists).

-      verbs have special rules learned with grammar points.

Atypical stress is marked with a diacritic to indicate the correct accent:

natiú /na.'t͡sju/ a nation, based on regular pattern natiunes (nations)

natíu /na.'tiw/ - native, adjective, based on regular nativa (native, feminine)

'''II. GRAMMAR RULES'''

§1. Introduction The parts of speech are

nominal words: variable (inflected) | invariable (non-inflected)

nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numbers | adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations, particles.nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numbers

verbal words:           verbs.

Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and some numbers are inflected (they change their form, basically the endings, to show different functions).

The main categories expressed in nominal words are the grammatical: number, gender case, and definiteness.

The main categories expressed in verbs are tense, mood and voice.

The standard word order is SVO - subject, verb, object.

§2. Nouns

Nouns adjectives and pronouns are inflected for number, gender, case and definiteness. In a phrase noun + adjective(s), all constituents agree in number, gender and case (also definiteness, which can be covered by additional words).

The grammatical numbers are singular and plural.

The genders are masculine, feminine and marginally neuter for nouns.

The neuter noun inflections are very similar to masculine, and can be eliminated by some speakers by being turned into full masculine nouns.

The neuter gender is important in adjectives and pronouns, and can be used to express certain general concepts (impersonal or unrelated to gender).

Nouns belong to three different inflection groups based on the thematic vowel that appears in their (singular) endings:

-a- (pattern 1), feminine nouns

-u- (pattern 2), masculine nouns (and neuter)

-e- (pattern 3), all genders - common pattern (m., f., n.)

The adjectives use the same patterns, but each unit has all three gender forms. They are sorted into two groups:

group A adjectives have an a-thematic feminine form and corresponding u-thematic masculine and neuter form (patterns 1 and 2 are used for a complete set)

group B adjectives are e-thematic in all genders (they only use pattern 3).

The basic cases are:

-      nominative - the sentence subject (S - V - O)

Anna is writting a letter. Anna - nominative case

-      accusative - the direct object (S - V - DO)

Anna is writting a letter. a letter - accusative case

The direct object is a noun on which the verb action is directly "performed".

-      general oblique (circumstantial case) - indicates various precise "circumstances" of the noun in a phrase, and the indirect object in the simple conlang module

Anna is writing about spring. about spring - general oblique case

-      genitive case - indicates possession (English ... 's or of ...) and the partitive (example: part of ...)

-      dative case - indicates the INDIRECT OBJECT (IO) (beneficiary of the verb action or state) in the basic sentence structure (S - V- [DO] - IO). The dative in plural is identical to the form of the plural general oblique case.

-      oblique cases are all except the nominative (subject case).

All nouns in a sentence without a determiner are considered definite (unlike in English).

Determiners can be articles, adjectives, numbers or some pronouns. Oblique (non-subject) forms are always definite, even when appearing without a determiner.

In the simple language module specific genitive and dative cases are replaced by the general "oblique" case.

possessive or partitive (genitive): of ... → preposition de + general oblique case

indirect object (dative): to, towards ... → preposition a + general oblique case

§2.1. Inflection in singular - pattern 1 (a-nouns)

In all noun patterns, the thematic ending will appear in the oblique case singular.

The a-nouns have the form stem + ending.

The nominative indefinite form ends in -e:          une case (a house)

The nominative definite form ends in -a:             casa               (house, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -a:       casa               (house, the - gen. oblique)

Definite articulation:                                    la casa           (the house, nom./obl. definite)

Oblique indefinite (articulated) form:

(d') una casa                        about a house

Adjectives in the feminine form have the same inflection:

une case puitre        a beautiful house (nominative)

* Note the difference in the indefinite article case forms:

une - nominative, una - oblique

This is an unstressed word - an article.

For number one, the form una can represent a subject (definite nominative), just like casa: una casa (one house - nominative).

Definite article forms: la - the (nominative/gen. oblique feminine)

§2.2. Inflection in singular - pattern 2 (u-nouns)

The u-nouns have the form stem + ending. The nominative indefinite case ends in a zero ending, i.e. it's a bare stem form.

The nominative indefinite form ends in a zero ending:            un mur (a wall)

The nominative definite form ends in -u(l): muru(l)        (wall, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -u:       muru               (wall, the - general oblique)

Definite articulation                             el mur               (the wall, nominative)

lu muru               (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                          un mur            (a wall, nominative)

unu muru       (general oblique)

Adjectives in the masculine form have the same inflection:

un mur haut  a high wall (nominative)

The article-free definite form muru is identical in the nominative/oblique, but the suffix -l can indicate the nominative (an auxilliary suffix article).

* Note the difference in the article case forms:

un, el - nominative, unu, lu - oblique

§2.2.1. Neutral inflection in singular - pattern 2 (u-nouns)

The neuter nouns have the ending -u in nominative and oblique, indefinite and definite.

The rest of the rules are the same as for masculine nouns.

Example: [(un)u] studiu, a studio, a study

Definite articulation                                    lu studiu         (the studio, nominative)

lu studiu         (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                                  (un)u studiu   (a wall, nominative)

unu studiu      (general oblique)

The articles (un, el, une, la) are inflected by patterns 1 and 2. For pattern 3, they will agree with the nouns/adjectives in their corresponding gender/case/number forms.

§2.3. Inflection in singular - pattern 3 (e-nouns)

The e-nouns are divided in two subgroups:

1) without infix, ofthe form stem + ending. The nominative indefinite case ends in a zero ending.

2) with infix, of the form stem + infix + ending. The nominative indefinite case sg. ends in a zero ending and the infix doesn't appear.

Examples:

a) The nominative indefinite form ends in a zero ending:        un doctor (a doctor), m.

The nominative definite form (identical): doctor          (doctor, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -e:       doctore         (doctor, the - general oblique)

Definite articulation                                                             el doctor       (the doctor, nominative)

lu doctore     (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                                  un doctor      (a doctor, nominative)

unu doctore (general oblique)

b) nominative indefinite:                            une nau         (a ship), feminine

The nominative definite form (identical): nau                (ship, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -e:       nave   (ship, the - general oblique)

Definite articulation                                                             la nau (the ship, nominative)

la nave          (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                                  une nau         (an actor, nominative)

una nave       (general oblique)

c) nominative indefinite:                            (un)u mar      (a sea), neuter

The nominative definite form (identical): mar                (sea, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -e:       mare  (sea, the - general oblique)

Definite articulation                                                             lu mar (the sea, nominative)

lu mare          (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                                  unu mar         (a sea, nominative)

unu mare       (general oblique)

A simple example of a noun with stem-final consonant change:

d) nominative indefinite:                            une pars        (a part), feminine

The nominative definite form (identical): part                          (part, the - nominative)

The general oblique form ends in -e:       parte  (part, the - general oblique)

Definite articulation                                                             la part            (the part, nominative)

la parte          (general oblique)

Indefinite articulation                                  une pars        (a part, nominative)

 

una parte      (general oblique)

§2.4. Basic inflection in plural

Some general principles can be applied to the plural forms. All self standing plural forms are considered definite (if no indefinite determiner is used).

The nominative plural:

- of all feminine nouns (pattern 1 and 3) ends in -es: cases, naves

- of masculine nouns from pattern 2, ends in -os:          muros

- of masculine nouns from pattern 3, ends in -es:          actores

The definite and indefinite articles are:

los, unos - masculine plural

les, unes - feminine plural

For the general oblique case in plural only one ending can be used for all nouns:

-is:

de casis, muris, actoris, ciutazis(about houses, walls, actors, cities).

If gender distinction is important, use:

-eis for oblique feminine                            /-əjs/

-iis for oblique masculine/neuter:                        /i.is/

de actoriis - about the actors

de filleis - about the girls (pattern 1 - fille, indefinite nom., girl)

Some nouns will require the gendered ending only for various reasons, for example a short stem:

res /rɛs/ - a thing, things, feminine (sg./pl. the same, stem r-)

de reis /reɪs/ - about/of things, in sg. de rè /də.'rɛ/ - of a thing

tres - /trɛs/ - three, number

a treis /treɪs/ - to three (of them), usually used for all genders, even though an additional form triis (to three, masculine) is availible

The oblique plural articles are:

lis - oblique plural definite

uns - oblique plural indefinite (contraction of unis)

The article lis can be seen also as: els (a contraction of elis, influenced by article el).

d'els actoris - about /from the actors (contraction de + els)

als filleis - to the girls                                                (contaction a + els)

The noun boy is fí (from a stem fill-) of the second pattern, plural fillos/fíos.

The noun has elisions of the final stem vowel -ll-, in multiple forms, like the oblique singular fiu (<fillu). The oblique plural appears as fiis (<fillis, elision of -ll-), whereas for girls the oblique always appears with a gender marked ending, filleis.

The 3rd noun group has a specific oblique ending -iu, which can be used for emphasis or in phrases with more words of the same ending -is (just one word):

d' actoriu (actoris) famosis            (about/from famous actors)         emphasis

de triu d'els actoris (about/from thee of the actors)                emphasis

The oblique ending -is can be contracted if phonologically possible:

de muris (murs), actoris (actors),

de fills (from/about boys and girls - gender unspecific)

§2.5. Marking the accusative (direct object)

The accusative (direct object case) is an oblique case with special treatment, and different marking in singular and plural.

Accusative singular

To mark the accusative (direct object) in singular, generally add an -n to the general oblique ending of the noun (this doesn't apply to articles, which are also in the oblique form):

casa  - casan           /ɑ:n/

* muru             - muron          /-on/ ~ /un/    (exception)

nave  - naven          /ẽ:n/ ~ /ɛn/, or /ən/

The sequences -an, -on, -en are actual replacements for -ą, -ų and -ę which are used to indicate nasal sequences.

In a direct object phrase (noun + adjectives) the corresponding ogonek symbol is used only on one word (typically the main noun), while the rest of the associated words follow the -n ortographic rule.

The articles are not affected and remain in the general oblique form except for one change in the feminine gender:

the oblique definite article la becomes o for the accusative:

(de) la casa (general oblique)                 (about) the house

o casan / o casą     (acc., direct object)           the house (DO)

Example:

Alan a bastít o casą. Alan (has) built the house.

The accusative /oblique form of the indefinite article una can be contracted to a for the accusative, but not for the general oblique

(d') una casa            (general oblique)                 (about) a house

una casą / a casą   (acc., direct object)           a house (DO)

Alan a bastit (un)a casą. Alan (has) built a house.

The masculine and neuter articles remain in the oblique form without changes. A certain contraction is possible for the accusative indefinite article (unu → un):

(de) lu muru              (general oblique)                 (about) the wall

(d') unu muru                                                                        (about) a wall

lu murų / un(u) murų (acc., direct object)         the / a wall (DO)

Alan a bastít lu murų. Alan (has) built the wall.

Alan a bastít un(u) murų hauton. Alan (has) built a high wall (lit. a wall-high [accus.]).

In the last example, the endings -ų and -on are equivalent, but the ogonek ending may be used only once. Many conlang users don't use the ogonek endings for practical reasons (muron hauton).

The neuter gender nouns have the accusative singular form identical to the nominative form.

Example:

Alan at un' animau pitigu a casa. Alan has a tiny pet (a tiny animal) at home.

DO                                                      DO

Accusative plural

The accusative (direct object) case in plural is completely identical in form to the nominative (subject) case, as a difference from the singular.

So, the endings are -es /-os (les cases, unos muros, etc.)

Alan a bastit unes cases / les cases. Alan (has) built some/the houses. (DO)

Anna a visitàt tres ciutades  giestre. Anna visited three cities yesterday. (DO)

§2.6. The genitive and dative

The functions of these advanced user cases are:

genitive case - indicates possession (English ... 's or of ...) and the partitive; examples:

a part of the cake (genitive), the door of the house (genitive)

 

-      dative case - indicates the INDIRECT OBJECT (IO) (beneficiary of the verb action or state) in the basic sentence structure (S - V- [DO] - IO). The dative in plural is identical to the form of the plural general oblique case. The dative is used to indicate movement towards a location ("on the way", e.g. going towards the school), and the accusative indicates movement to a specific location (e.g. going to school).

Forms of nouns:

Genitive and dative endings are the following:

Singular

Plural

The possessive ending 's can be used for all nouns when appropriate, taking their definite singular forms: casa 's, muru 's, reii' s (rei's).

The genitive is formed either using the indefinite/definite article, or with the coordinative genitival article al (when no other article is used).

al case /al.'ka.zə/ - of a house

The genitival coordinative article is inflected for gender and grammatical number

al case, al muri - of a house, of a wall

ale casesu, au(z) murosu (also: ale cases-u, au muros-u) - of houses, walls

In front of a vowel, the ending -u is replaced by -on (which in fact, corresponds to -ų)

ale caseson hautes - of tall houses.

In phrases (like noun+adjectives) the ending -u /-on is not repeated on attributes:

auz ortosu maňňos - of large gardens, parks.