Næniusk

Begonian is the English name for this conlang. ==Phonology ==

Allophony

 * 1)    Intervocalic lenis stops are replaced by the corresponding approximants or fricatives:        /b/ --> [β or     β  ̞ ], /d/ --> [ð or ð̞], /ȡ/ --> [j+], /g/ --> [j] or [ɰ]. In words with more than one intervocalic lenis stop, only the last one is changed to an approximant. Word-terminal lenis stops are deleted in speech, unless the next word starts with a vowel. This rule does not apply if /b/, /d/, /ȡ/, /g/ appear geminate in writing: ,, <ḍḍ>,  - or if they appear in the onset of a stressed syllable.
 * 2)   Some allophones      of /x/ include: [ç], [ʝ] (usually in the environment of front vowels), [ɣ] (especially intervocalic) or    [ χ  ]. /x/ is represented as in writing at the beginning of a word, otherwise as < x >.
 * 3)     /xʷ/ and /ʍ/ a    re in free variation. The sounds developed from [ ɧ], which some speakers still use. There are further varying dialectal realizations such as: [ʋ̥], [  θ wɣ  ], [ɕw], [çwɣ], [ɣw], [  χ w  ], [ħw], [hw].
 * 4)  [n] adopts the place of articulation of whichever obstruent it precedes. E.g. [ng] becomes [ŋg] – doesn’t apply if it follows a bilabial or alveolo-palatal sound.
 * 5)  Nasals are devoiced when preceding voiceless plosives/affricates: < mp, nt, ňṭ, nk > are realized as [m̥p], [n̥t], [ȵ̥ȶ], [ŋ̊k], respectively.
 * 6)  Back vowels cause the following /l/ and /l̥/ to be velarized.
 * 7)  If a voiced sound precedes an unvoiced one, it loses its voice and vice versa.
 * 8)  /  ɾ  / is in free variation with [r], [ʀ] and [ʁ].
 * 9)  In any cluster of two or more alveolar/post-alveolar/palato-alveolar sounds, the first one(s) assimilate(s) its/their PoA to the following sound(s).
 * 10)  /k/ and /g/ are realized as [ɕ]/[ʑ] in front of   . /ki, ky, ke, k  ø , gi, gy, ge, g  ø  / are represented as .
 * 11)  Adding  to alveolar sounds yields alveolo-palatal sounds:  [ȵ],  [ȴ],  [ȶ],  [ɕ],  [ʑ],  [ȴ̥], etc.
 * 12)   and  is realized as [ɕ] (if in stressed syllable or word-initial), else as [  ʑ  ].
 * 13)  /  ɾ  / + /d or t/ yields [r].
 * 14)  /j/ and /y/ or [ʏ ] together yields the palato-labial approximant [ ɥ ].
 * 15)  /  ʋ, j/ surrounded by two consonants yields syllabic [ʊ], [ɪ] respectively.

 Earlier stages of Begonian used phonemic ejectives. This is still visible in modern-day writing, as / t /, / p /, and / k / can appear geminate in writing – this however has no effect on pronounciation. The alveolo-palatal ejective was often realized as [ç’] or sometimes [ɕ’], [x’] or [ χ  ’], which has retained in some dialects for <ṭṭ> and. 

 Plosives and affricates tend to be aspirated if word-initial or in a stressed syllable, preaspirated if following vowels and unaspirated when in the environment of consonants or at the end of a word. There’s a more detailed description regarding aspiration further below. </li>

 Many dialects still obtain the pharyngeal fricative [ħ], and contrast it with [h]. Also many speakers pharyngealize many sounds when in the environment of back vowels: [ðʕ], [zʕ], [ʑʕ], [ʒʕ], [lʕ], [l̥ʕ], [nʕ], etc.<span id="cke_bm_65E" style="display: none;">  </li>

 [f] and [v] only appear in loanwords and are usually replaced by /ʋ/, /ð/ and/or /  θ  /. </li>

 An epenthetic [ɦ] is added between words ending/beginning with vowels. </li>

Syllable structure
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 24px; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"> (C)(C)[CV/VC/CVC](C)  ; V ~ any mono- or diphthong, C ~ any consonant (semi-vowels included)

Forbidden clusters
These are solved by inserting the preceding vowel.
 * CCCC
 * /t, d, ȡ, ȶ/ + /ð, θ /
 * /g, k/ + /x, ʍ/
 * /b, p, m, n/ + /ʋ/
 * /xw/ + C

This forbidden cluster is split by an epenthetic -n-.
 * VVV


 * Plosive + Plosive
 * Plosive + Nasal

These clusters are solved by turning the first sound into its correspondent fricative. In the last case, also the orthographic representation is adapted. Solved by deleting the sound coming first in the cluster.
 * /t, d/ + /l/
 * /k, l/ may not appear in both onset and coda.
 * Sequence of two or more different alveolar/post-alveolar/alveolo-palatal fricatives.

Allowed word-initial CCC clusters

 * Fricative-Plosive-Liquid


 * Plosive-Fricative-/j, ʋ/


 * Fricative-Nasal-/j/


 * Plosive-Liquid-/j/ (unless /dl, tl/)

Furthermore

 * Any cluster consisiting of more than one dental/alveolar/post-alveolar/palato-alveolar fricative is forbidden.
 * All phonemes except for [l̥], [xw] and [h] can appear word-terminally.

Geminates
< p, t, k, m, n, r > appear geminate in writing if affix sequence were to produce such forms, all other sounds are represented with one letter in writing, if that happens.

Historic Development
Above is the phonemic inventory of Old Begonian: Furthermore, the Begonian phoneme inventory also included ejectives and pharyngealized vowels (as result of influence from another language) but they have been dropped off standard language rather quickly, however are still present in many dialects.
 * 1) The palatalized alveolar series has shifted into alveolo-palatal; palatalized r, l and voiceless l were lost on the way.
 * 2) The retroflex series has moved to post-alveolar; the plosives were lost on the way.
 * 3) The bilabial fricatives have shifted over labio-dental to dental.
 * 4) The labio-dental voiced fricative has changed into an approximant.
 * 5) The coarticulated palatal-velar fricative has changed into a labialized velar fricative and/or voiceless labio-velar approximant. (free variation)
 * 6) The alveolar trill and flap have merged.

Diphthongs
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Additionally, Begonian employs the following diphthongs:

Allophony

 * 1) /ɨ/ has the allophone [ʉ] after sounds with a labialized quality.
 * 2) Nasal consonants cause the preceding vowels to be nasalized.
 * 3) /æ/ at the beginning of a word is written as <ae>.
 * 4)  /    ɒ / In free variation with [ <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">ɔ ] <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">.
 * 5) The slashes indicate there are two main dialectal realizations. Some dialects reduce the diphthongs to its second vowel.
 * 6) Open-class words can have (phonemic) pitch accent on their first syllable in the root. It’s usually a rising-falling tone and is applied to ca. 5-10% of all words.

Declension
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Declension of the noun <kåmpjuter> [,khɒ~m̥p’juthəɾ ]


 * 1) If the root ends in a vowel, it is deleted when adding a suffix starting with another vowel.
 * 2) The declension depends on whether the nucleus of the last syllable in the root is front (then the blue endings apply) or back (then the green endings apply.) If the ending contains only central vowels, no differentiation is made.
 * 3) Benefactive is becoming increasingly archaic and can be replaced by the dative.
 * 4) Begonian differentiates between dual and plural (more than 2). -h(é)- is the duality marker, while - þ - is the plurality marker.
 * 5) Begonian is an ergative language – meaning that a suffix (here: -eg) has to be added to signalize that the following verb is (di)transitive.

Vowel Harmony
If the root of the last syllable in the root contains /a/ or / ɨ / the choice which of the two sets of endings to use is free.

Morphonological rules: If...
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Notice that these rules only apply for the pronounciation, the graphemic representation is not affected.
 * 1) ...two diphthongs clash, the first is being reduced to its corresponding monophthong. (-héín --> -heín)
 * 2) ...a diphthong precedes a monophthong, it is being reduced aswell. (-héym --> -heym)
 * 3) ...the root ends in three consonants and the suffix starts with a consonant, then the nucleus of the last syllable of the root gets added in between:    (-CaCCC+C --> –CaCCCaC; not –CaCCCC) Affricates count as two consonants in Rule 3.
 * 4) ...more than three vowels clash, the vowel-cluster is reduced to its last two constituents.
 * 5) ...identical vowels/diphthongs clash, they are reduced to one: (-hééna --> -héna)

Possession
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Words like “my”, “your”, etc. are expressed in suffixes: <kåmpjuter>

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> If possession and case markers combine, possession markers precede the case markers, e.g.: without my two computers: kåmpjuter-et-hé-ned vs. without our (two) computer: kåmpjuter-ét-ned vs. without our (two) two computers: kåmpjuter-ét-hé-ned

Stress/Prosodic Features
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Stress is usually conveyed with a rising, or rising/falling tone, depending on the speaker.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (SW = syllable in the root, SF = syllable in the affix cluster.)
 * 1) In words with three syllables or fewer, there’s always slight stress on the first syllable.
 * 2) In words with more than three syllables, the first and fourth syllable are being stressed.
 * 3) In clusters of affixes, the first syllable is being stressed, independently of where stress is placed in the root of the word:
 * SW1-SW2-SF1-SF2 would have its stress on the first and third syllable
 * SW1-SW2-SW3-SW4-SW5-SF1-SF2 on the first, fourth and sixth
 * SF1-SF2-SW1-SW2-SF1-SF2-SF3 on the first, third and fifth

Aspiration

 * 1) Can only fall on /p, t, ȶ, k/ or the correspondent affricates.
 * 2) First /p, t, ȶ, k/ of a word is preaspirated, unless it is in the onset of a stressed syllable (which is when it it (post)aspirated) or in the coda of the last syllable (which is where there’s no aspiration at all).
 * 3) If any of the four mentioned sounds appear together with another consonant, aspiration is blocked altogether.
 * 4) Preaspiration and non-aspiration are always in alternation: would be [t h ata],  would be [t h ata h ta], would be [na h tata],      <  natatat  > would be [na h tatat],  would be [nana h tat], <  natanatatat   >  would be [na h tanat h atat], < tatantatatata  > would be [t h atantat h ata h ta]. Bold signalizes stressed syllables.
 * 5) Additional < h > changes the aspiration sequence: While  would be [  na h tatat ],  would be [  na ta  h  tat ].
 * 6) Preaspiration can’t fall on syllables with /h/ in the onset.
 * 7)  Preaspiration is not phonemic and in fact you may aspirate sounds as you wish, this is just the most common realization. 

Possibility 1
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Begonian further gives the possibility to differentiate between inclusive and exclusive “we”: Inclusive “we”/vílþa is the standard usage, to express that the speaker himself is not included, add the postposition: “mæsvned”, which in total means as much as “We without me”.
 * 1) Differentiation between singular and dual only in spelling.
 * 2) No differentiation between singular and dual.
 * 3) No differentiation in gender.
 * 4) "Ád" is used to refer exclusively to syntactic information like statements, questions, etc. Tangible inanimate objects would be referred to with “egis”.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Declension of pronominal pronouns :

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Declension of personal pronouns do not follow the vowel harmony behind the declension of open class words.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> This also adds a second possibility to express possession: kåmpjuterníd vs. kåmpjuter tuvín (=your computer)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right:-14.3pt;text-align:justify"> Though the second version sounds a bit old-fashioned and isn’t really used by younger speakers.

Possibility 2
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language: AR-SA;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> This becomes relevant in sentences with a simple direct (dative) and/or indirect (accusative) object. In this case pronominal pronouns may be represented as simple affixes put ahead of the affixes of verb conjugation:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">''' (Naiddeg) mæsvi kýdžak. ''' (3SG-ERG) 1SG-ACC hear-(3SG.PRES) Naidd-0-eg mæsv-0-i kýdž-ak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = He hears me.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> means the same as - simply:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">''' Kýdžrak. ''' hear-(1SG-ACC)-(3SG.PRES) Kýdž-r(a)-ak. This method can be used for the other cases than Dative/Accusative aswell:

''' Ixava ňai rakuivak. ''' buy-(1.DO-PL-BENE)-(3.IO)-PROG-SG-3 ixa- vaň  -a-i-rak-iv-a-k = He is buying it for us.

Relative pronouns
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Relative pronouns have to be put at the very ending of a subordinate clause (optionally initiated by the particle ak) and follow the same declension as nouns:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">''' Jást (ak) pek banrakpél éstæn sísk. ''' DEM (PART) man-ABS make-(3.ACC.IO)-PST-SG-1 REL-INSTR be.3.SG  jást (ak) pek-0 ban-rak-p-é-l ést-æn sísk. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">'' = This is the man with whom I’ve made this. ''

Demonstrative pronouns
<p class="MsoNormal"> There is no differentiation between whether the object being referred to is close to the speaker or further away. <Óm (ómeg, ómín, …)> can be used to refer to objects from previous sentences or objects that are  very  far away (comparable to German “jene”). Moreover, it serves as contrast:

<p class="MsoNormal"> “I don’t like these ( jáþi ), but I do like those ( ómi ).”

Numbers
<p class="MsoNormal"> Begonian employs a base-8 number system: <p class="MsoNormal">Nowadays it is usual to employ loanwords for common number terms like million (miljon), billion (miljar) or trillion (biljon). Objects are in singular number with "yt", " ytuň ", " ytåt ", etc., in dual number with "có", " cúň ", " coåt " etc. and in plural number with any other number, including zero (akoén).

Definiteness
<p class="MsoNormal"> To express indefiniteness add the particle “ápy” (optional): The computer: /kåmpjuter/ A computer: /kåmpjuter ápy/ <p class="MsoNormal"> Ápy is used when one wants to refer to something in general (e.g. as in “I love cats (ápy).”) or in a similar matter the indefinite article is used in English, but not as frequently: The object(s) referred to need to be even “more indefinite”.*

<p class="MsoNormal"> *really no idea how to explain that one more appropriately.

Word-Formation
<p class="MsoNormal"> The core part of the compund comes after the modifier, which comes in different cases:

<p class="MsoNormal">

<p class="MsoNormal"> <p class="MsoNormal"> Other combinations like Noun+Adjective or Verb+Adjective are expressed with at least two separate words.

Verbs
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Verbs can begin and end with any phoneme, as long as the phonotactical rules aren’t breached. Basically it’s not possible to tell verbs apart from nouns in isolation.

Non-Finite Forms
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> However, there are certain prefixes speakers can employ to signalize that he is using certain non-finite forms:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> e.g. for [’khʌtaɪ̯] (grow, increase  – intrans  .), [’ɾizɐn] (sit) <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Again, one has to differentiate two different sets of prefixes that are used depending on whether it’s surrounded by front or back vowels.

Present Indicative
<p class="MsoNormal"> Basic verb conjugation in the  present    tense (indicative)  works as follows: <p class="MsoNormal"> Indicative is used whenever something is likely to happen, happens regularly, or happens at the moment. When two vowels clash, the vowel of the root wins.

Present Irrealis
<p class="MsoNormal"> Conjugation in the  irrealis    mode – presens : <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> The irrealis marker is –  š .

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> This mode is used whenever one wants to express that one hopes/fears for something to happen, or would do something, thinks something is unlikely/impossible, or he’s not entirely sure whether something is to happen, or there’s not sufficient information etc.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Which affix to employ depends on whether it is surrounded by front or back vowels.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> In the dual versions, <h> is pronounced as /x/.

Immediate Past Indicative
PST.IMMEDIATE.IND is -  p  - in singular and -   þ  - for dual and plural. Also, DUAL-PST.IMMEDIATE is a zero morpheme in this case.

Irregular verbs
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> ja  (= to be) and goelja (= to have) have their own conjugation – for presens/indicative: Note that a number of intransitive verbs have irregular past stems: The conjugation for these remains the same throughout, even when the past marker -p/ þ- becomes redundant.

Immediate/Remote Distinction
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Basically, immediate past is used when the the action referred to has happened not too long before and still has consequences until speaker’s time. However, the definition of “not too long” is relative: One uses the immediate past to express that one thinks something happened not too long ago, so for the sentence: “The last big war happened (only) 1000 years ago.”

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> You would want to use the immediate past, when you think 1000 years is not much time in this case – or another example: “Dinosaurs have gone extinct (only) 65 mil. years ago.” <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> …whereas one uses the remote past to express something happened a long time ago in relation to the context: “Man, it’s been over 50 years since Schalke 04 last won the German championsship.”

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> --> would warrant for the usage of the remote past, even though 50-odd years is by far not as long a time span as 1000 years or 65 million years.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> To make things more drastic:  “I’ve already come home 3 hours ago  (instead of, let’s say, 1 hour as expected).”

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> --> would also warrant for the usage of the remote past.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Apart from a very few cases, you would never produce an ungrammtical sentence if you wrongly used the other past tense than intended, it’s just you’d express something else.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> In sentences where more than one actions are being described and one happened before the other, you have to use the remote past for the former action and immediate past for the latter.

Immediate Past Irrealis
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">PST.IMMEDIATE.1/2/3.PL. is -  á  -.

Immediate Future
<p class="MsoNormal">1 Note that in these cases, vowel assimilation does not apply.

<p class="MsoNormal"> Also the future tense is special in that fusional endings are applied.

Distant Future
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> The rule behind the usage of the two future forms is similar to that of the past forms – if something happens soon in relation to the context, use the immediate form, otherwise use the distant form.

<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Periphrastic Conjugation

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pekui pújemél. ''' 1-ERG man-ACC see-SG-1 mæsv-eg pek-i pújem-é-l <p class="MsoNormal"> = I see the man.

<p class="MsoNormal"> means the same as:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pekui (ó)pújem ikrak. ''' 1-ERG man-ACC (PRES)-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i (ó)-pújem ik-rak <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">

<h5 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">TAM Tense/Aspect/Mood affixes are added to the non-finite part of this conjugation:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pekui pó pújem ikrak.  1-ERG man-ACC PST'''-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i pó-pújem ik-rak <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">= I saw the man.

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pekui stó pújem ikrak.  1-ERG man-ACC FUT'''-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i stó-pújem ik-rak <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">= I will see the man.

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pekui pújem iv ikrak.  1-ERG man-ACC see.INF-PROG''' AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg pek-i pújem-iv ik-rak <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">= I am seeing the man.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Note that in PPVA the immediate/remote distinction for future and past is lost.

<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Usage


 * The periphrastic alternative is preferred in sentences without or only with one subordinate clause, whereas the agglutinative alternative is found more frequently in more complicated sentences.
 * Periphrastic conjugation cannot be used in intransitive sentences.

Negation
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> In order to negate verb, just add /é(n)-/: /rizanél/ --> /érizanél, érizanýr/, ...

Imperative
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Imperative  is formed by using the correspondent irrealis forms: Rizanšýr! (Sit (Sg.) down!) – Myllnšvýr! (Throw (Pl.)!)

Gerund
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Gerund  is formed by adding /-( i)lut-/ to the root of the verb and by adding the same endings as for nouns.

/rizanilut kjódza/ [ ’ɾizan,ilʏht ‘ɕɔʊdzɐ] (= the sitting boy, Abs.)

Affix sequence
Wherever it says "other" the sequence is arbitrary (though usually listed by topic, with the most "important" affix being put as front as possible)

Voice
B egonian employs an antipassive voice:

<p class="MsoNormal">Mæsveg halvadi pujamrakól. 1-ERG cat-ACC see-(3.ACC.IO)-PRS-IND-SG-1 mæsv-eg halvad-i pujam-rak-0-0-ó-l <p class="MsoNormal"> = I see the cat.

<p class="MsoNormal"> or:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg halvadi pujam iþrak. ''' 1-ERG cat-ACC PRS-see.INF AUX.(1.ERG-3.ACC.IO) mæsv-eg halvad-i 0-pujam iþ-rak <p class="MsoNormal"> = I see the cat. (more on polypersonal verb agreement in chapter 4)

<p class="MsoNormal"> becomes:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæna pujamjól.  1.ABS see-AP'''-PRS-IND-SG-1 mæna pujam-ja-0-0-ó-l <p class="MsoNormal"> = I see. (literally) <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Passive  is formed by inserting the antipassive affix -ja- and deleting the patient of the active phrase - though that doesn't always have to happen, the patient can be added in the causative case - and put after the verb. This poses an exception to the otherwise strict SOV order. If no specfic agent needs to be specified it can be left out and the verb of the sentence is in its correspondent non-finite form plus the antipassive marker.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">There is another marker -épo- which signalizes something happens without the agent's control/volition/intention and works something like a medio-passive marker.

Reflexivity
<p class="MsoNormal"> To express reflexivity use "vax, vaxeg, vaxín,..." and add it right next to the subject it’s referring to. This at the same time works as the intensifier myself, yourself, etc.

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg vaxi lenumítpél. ''' 1-ERG REFL-ACC be_good-INT-PST-SG-1 mæsv-eg vax-i lenu-mít-p-é-l <p class="MsoNormal">'' = I improved myself. ''

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg vax lenumítpél. ''' 1-ERG INT be_good-INT-PST-SG-1 mæna vax lenu-mít-p-é-l <p class="MsoNormal">'' = I did the improving myself. ''

<p class="MsoNormal"> PPVA can express reflexivity itself:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Mæsveg pélenumít ik  saň.  1-ERG PST-INF-be_good-INT AUX.(1.ERG-1.ACC.IO)''' mæsv-eg p-é-lenu-mít ik- saň <p class="MsoNormal">'' = I improved myself. ''

<h3 class="MsoNormal"> Participles
 * 1) "p-é-axtam-ilut" (PST-INF-buy-GER) would denote an object which bought (intrans.) in the past.
 * 2) Likewise, "st-é-axtam-ilut" (FUT-INF-buy-GER) is something that will buy in the future.
 * 3) "st-é-ik-axtam-ilut" (FUT-INF-ADJZ-buy-GER) denotes something that is to be bought in the future.

Syntax
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Begonian is a predominantly head-final /left-branching and head-marking language.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Basic word order is strictly SOV both for main and subordinate clauses. The objects themselves may be freely scrambled though.

<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Case stacking

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Instead of adding all the endings to each word, one can choose to leave them away and instead stack them in front of or after the verb... an example:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (1) '''Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned myllnpak. '''  [ˈɾi.zãˌni.lʏ.ʰtə ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋaˌðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪs.nə ˈmyl̥n.pʰak] Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ALL admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABE throw-PST-3SG.IND Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-éna urize-e-t-ned mylln-p-ak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">   '' = The sitting boy threw snow at the cat without my admission. ''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> The following sentence has the exact same meaning:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (2) Rizaniluteg kjódzog ẋuivi halvad urizet  énaned  pémyllny i þrak. [ˈɾi.zãˌni.lʏ.ʰtə ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪt ˈɦɛ̃æ̯̃.nã.nə ˈp ɛ̃æ̯̃ .myl̥.ny ˈɦiθ.rɐk] Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ABS admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABS ALL-ABE PST-INF-throw AUX.(3SG.ERG.AN-3SG.ACC) Rizan-ilut-eg kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-0 urize-e-t-0 éna-ned p-é-myllny i þ -rak.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> It is important to keep the right order in the case marking clusters. The following sentence...

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Rizaniluteg kjódzog ẋuivi halvad urizet  nedéna  pémyllny i þrak. [ˈɾi.zãˌni.lʏ.ʰtə ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋɐ ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪt ˈne.ðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ ˈp ɛ̃æ̯̃ .myl̥.ny ˈɦiθ.rɐk] Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ABS admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABS ABE-ALL PST-INF-throw AUX.(3SG.ERG.AN-3SG.ACC) Rizan-ilut-eg kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-0 urize-e-t-0 ned-éna p-é-myllny i þ-rak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> ...would translate to: The sitting boy threw snow at my admission without the cat .

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> To negate a sentence add /é-/ to the verb. To negate special aspects of a sentence add the /é-/ to whichever word you want to negate: Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned émyllnpak. (É)rizanilut(eg) ékjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned émyllnpak. Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi éhalvadéna urizetned émyllnpak.

Questions
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> To form questions, pull the verb to the front and add /há/ right after it: Myllnpak há rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned? Myllnpak há ẋuivi halvadéna urizetned rizanilut(eg) kjódzog? (etc.) <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">'' = Did the sitting boy throw snow at the cat without my admission? ''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Questions are answered either by replying with “Vjédi” (Yes) or “Næg” (No) Myllnpak hávjédi rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizetæned? <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Would imply the speakers expects a “yes” as answer.

Relative Clauses
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Relative clauses  are initiated using ak and closed by ésta  /áti (abstract)  and directly precede the referent.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna ak naiddeg lá   s  <span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE-AT;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">š     pak ésti urizetned myllnpak. [ ˈɾi.zãˌni.lʏ.ʰtə ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ˈxʷʉ.ʋaɪ̯ ˈhal.ʋaˌðɛ̃æ̯̃.nɐ a k ˈnaɪ̯.də ˈla    ʊ̯ .ʃpʰak     ˈɛæ̯s.ti   ˈɦu.ɾaɪ̯.zɪs.nə  ˈmyl̥n.pʰak  ] Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG snow-ACC cat-ALL REL 3SG-ERG need-IRR-PST-SG-3 REL-ACC admission-(SG-1.POSS)-ABE  throw-PST-SG-3 Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ẋuiv-i halvad-éna ak naidd-eg las-   <span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE-AT;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">š -p-a-k ést-i urize-e-t-ned  mylln-p-a-k <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = The sitting boy threw snow at the cat without my admission, which he would have needed.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">However, relative clauses are initiated only by ésta/áti and follow its referent, if there is another clause embedded in that relative clause.

<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Dependent Phrases

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Similar to relative clauses, dependent phrases are initiated with the particle ak and closed by ek+case suffix:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ak naiddeg (ómeg) ád émat <span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE-AT;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">š pak ekui dinjak. [ ˈɾi.zãˌni.lʏ.ʰtə ˈɕɔʊ̯.d͡zʊ ak ˈnaɪ.də aʊ̯ð ˈɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʃpɐk  ˈeʰ.ki   ˈdĩ.ȵɐk ] Sit-GER-ERG boy-ERG say-3SG, NEG-do-PST-SG-3 CNJ 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN CNJ-ACC Rizan-ilut-(eg) kjódz-og ak naidd-eg ád é-mat <span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE-AT;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">-š -p-a-k ek(u)-i dinja-k <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = The boy said, that he didn’t do it.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Again, if there is another clause embedded, they follow its referent and are only initiated with ek.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> In the example above, the subordinate phrase is the object of the whole sentence, so you have to add the corresponding ending /-i/ to the subordinate conjunction. If the subordinate phrase is the subject of the sentence, it is only initiated by ek. Furthermore, the subject of the subject phrase has to be repeated in the subsequent phrase:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Ek  naiddeg ád ématýnpak, ád évoryk. [ˈɦeʰk ‘naɪ̯.də ‘aʊð ‘ɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʏ̃ɵ̯̃n.pɐk aʊ̯ð 'ɛæ̯.ʋʊ,ɾysk ] CNJ-ABS 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN NEG-do-PST-3SG, 3.ABS.INAN NEG-be_true-3SG  Ek-0  naidd-eg ád é-matýn-p-ak, ád é-vory-k. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = That (Abs.) he didn’t do it, is not true.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Ekoeg  naiddeg ád ématýnpak, ád naiddi palltapak. [ˈɦeʰki ‘naɪ̯.də ‘aʊð ‘ɛ̃æ̯̃.maˌʰtʏ̃ɵ̯̃n.pɐk aʊ̯ð ˈ na ɪ̯. di ˈ phaɬ.taˌpʰak ] CNJ-ERG 3SG-ERG 3SG.INAN NEG-do-PST-3SG, 3.ABS.INAN 3-ACC shock-PST-3SG  Ek(o)-eg  naidd-eg ád é-matýn-p-ak, ád naidd-i pallta-p-ak <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = That (Erg.) he didn’t do it, shocked her.

<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Participle Constructions <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">~ including verbal adjectives aren't allowed and have to paraphrased using a relative clause.

Conjunctions
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> List of some of the most important subordinate conjunctions: Some conjunctions may also be incorporated into the verb under the category "other suffixes". Subordinate clauses with such verbs are initiated with ák. The isolating alternative is primarily used when there's only one subordinate clause in a sentence, otherwise the incorporating alternative is preferred.

Verbal constructions
''' Džon ak køndecéna é ṡytivi ekui žapystak. ''' [John-ABS CNJ test-ALL INF-learn CNJ-ACC prepare-SG-3 ] Džon-0 ak køndec-éna é-ṡytivi ek-i žapyst-a-k. <p class="MsoNormal">'' = John prepares to learn for the test. ''

<p class="MsoNormal"> to-clauses are formed by implementing subordinate clauses. This is, unless the subclause only consists of a single non-finite form, where that can be put next to the finite form:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Džon é ṡytivi žapystak. ''' [John-ABS INF-learn prepare-SG-3 ] Džon-0 é-ṡytivi žapyst-a-k. <p class="MsoNormal"> = John prepares to learn 

Topic Marking
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language: AR-SA;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">To stress a certain aspect of the sentence, add the particle ak next to the word in quesion:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (1) Ak mja halvadi pjukuipak ekui madinja iþsaň. [ak mja ˈhal.ʋaˌði ˈpju.ʰkɨˌpʰak  ˈeʰki ˈma.ðãɪ̯̃.ȵɐ ˈiθ.sɐ̃ȵ ] [CNJ SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-3SG CNJ  -ACC PST-say-INF AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) ] Ak mja halvad-i pjukui-p-ak  ek(u)-i ma-dinja iþ-saň. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= He told me, that he fed the cat.)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (2) Ak mja halvadi ak pjukuipak ekui madinja iþsaň. [CNJ SAME cat-ACC TOP feed-PST-3SG CNJ  -ACC PST-say-INF AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) ] <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= He told me, that it was the cat that he fed.)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (3) Ak mja halvadi pjukuipak ak  ekui madinja iþsaň. [CNJ SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-3SG TOP CNJ  -ACC PST-say-INF AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) ] <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= He told me, that it was that he fed the cat.)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (1) is the unmarked situation. If a certain aspect of the subordinate clause is stressed use the “neutral” conjuncion /ak/ and place ekui after the word which forms the focus.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">It is also possible to include the topic particle into the affix cluster to stress certain grammatical information:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (4) Ak mja halvadi pjukuip ax ak ekui madinja iþsaň. [CNJ SAME cat-ACC feed-PST-TOP-3SG CNJ  -ACC PST-say-INF AUX.(3SG AN-1SG) ] (= He told me, that it was that he fed the cat at some point in the past.)

Note that the surface representation in this case is, because /k/ is not allowed in both onset and coda.

Correlatives
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Syntax of W-questions : Begin with the verb, then the pronomen, then Subject-Object. Rizanilut(eg) kjódzog ẋuivi halvadéna urizezæned myllný -->

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Myllnpak hággui rizaniluteg kjódzog halvadéna urizezæned? (= What did the boy throw... ?)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Myllnpak hákbo rizaniluteg kjódzog halvadéna urizezæned? (=When did he do it?)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Myllnpak hákoéna ... ? (=Where/To whose direction did he throw it?)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Myllnpak hággned ...? (=Without what did he throw it?)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Myllnpak hákoeg ...? (=Who threw the snow to the cat w/o my admission?) <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Further examples: Rizaniluteg kjódzog ak naiddeg ád mat    š pak     éstec  i    édinjak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= The boy doesn’t say, where ('  Acc  ) ' he did it.) Rizaniluteg kjódzog ak naiddeg ád mat    š pak     hékv  i    édinjak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= The boy doesn’t say, how ('  Acc  ) ' he did it.) Rizaniluteg kjódzog ak naiddeg ád mat    š pak     hékoén  i    édinjak. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (= The boy doesn’t say, in which direction ('  Acc  ) ' he did (throw) it.)

Ambiguities
In phrases where more than one person is being referred to, it is possible to add markers to avoid ambiguities: '' Naiddeg ap mæsvi palltavyk, naiddeg ep mæsvi épalltavyk. Jásteg ap / Jástego ep ... '' <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> = The one person shocks me, the other doesn’t. The former / The latter ...

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> However one can replace “naiddegap” by “jásteg” and “naiddegep” by “ómeg” and have the problem put aside.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (1) Džonog þá  p  Meliseg oðkami  ep  ixóppak, hrak  ep  skænytvøkpak. [ˈd͡ʒõ.nʊ θaʊ̯p ˈme.laɪ̯.sɪ ˈoð.kãˌmi.ɪp ˈix.ɔʊ̯ˌpʰak hɾak eʰp ˈskæ̃.nyʰtˌʋøx.pɐk] [John-ERG and-  DET  Melissa-ERG ticket-ACC-  DET  buy=want-PST-3PL, but  DET  be_sold out-all-PST-3PL Džon-og(g) þá-p Melis-eg(g)-ap oðkam-i-ep ix-óp-p-ak, hrak ep skænyt-vøk-p-ak. <p class="MsoNormal">'' John and Melissa(-  ap  ) wanted to buy concert tickets(-  ep  ), but they(-  ep  ) were all sold out. ''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> -ep signifies in this case, that the subject of the subclause is not identical with the one in the main phrase.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Let’s add a second sentence:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> (2) They instead went to the people in the bar.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> What is “they” referring to? In Begonian, one can add “-ap” to clearify, that John and Melissa are the subject of the sentence, and “-ep” for the tickets to be the subject. Since there are no separate pronomina for masculine/feminine, these markers come in handy very often.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Another example:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> There is no obligation to use “-ap” and “-ep” for markers, one could use whatever s/he wants, as long as everything remains pragmatical.

Switch Reference
<p class="MsoNormal"> Also, one has the possibility to add the postposition “nén” to signify, that an object of one part of a sentence is not identical with that of the other

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> “I am working a book, he’s working on a book “nén”: '''<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language:AR-SA;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">Jálk amaňæde ónókjola kuymne iktarrak, toňix naiddi nén hjeména pryhaṭpél. ''' [ˈjaʊ̯lkãmɐ̃ˌɲ̟æ̃ð̞ə ˈ ɔʊ̯ nɔʊ̯ɕʊˌla ˈkʰỹmnə 'ix.taˌrɐk ˈtʰõɲ̟aɪ̯x̟ ˈnaɪ̯dĩnɛ̃æ̯̃n ˈhjẽmɛ̃æ̯̃nɐ ˈpɾyhaspɛæ̯l] [Mathematics-INSTR INF-teach try AUX.(1SG-3SG.AN.DO-3SG.INAN.IO), then 3SG-ACC- DIFF  home-ALL drive-PST-1SG] Jálkamaň-æde ó-nókjola kuymne ik-tar-rak, toňix naidd-i-nén hjem-éna pryhaṭ-p-eli. <p class="MsoNormal"> = I tried to teach him mathematics, later I drove him (another ‘him’) home. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> The opposite is also possible with the postposition “mja”:

<p class="MsoNormal">''' Jálkamaňæde ónókjola kuymne iktarrak, toňix naiddi mja hjeména pryhaṭpél. ''' [ˈjaʊ̯lkãmɐ̃ˌɲ̟æ̃ð̞ə ˈ   ɔʊ̯  nɔʊ̯ɕʊˌla ˈkʰỹmnə 'ix.taˌrɐk ˈtʰõɲ̟aɪ̯x̟ ˈnaɪ̯dĩmjɐ ˈhjẽmɛ̃æ̯̃nɐ ˈpɾyhaspɛæ̯l] [Mathematics-INSTR INF-teach try AUX.(1SG-3SG.AN.DO-3SG.INAN.IO), then 3SG-ACC- SAME  home-ALL drive-PST-1SG] <p class="MsoNormal"> = I tried to teach him mathematics, later I drove him (the same ‘him’) home.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> If the subject of the main and subordinate phrase is identical, one can use /óm, ómeg, .../ in the subordinate phrase aswell: '' Jálkamaňæde vunókjola kuymne iktarrak, toňix ómi hjeména pryhaṭpél. ''

Copula
<p class="MsoNormal"> Adjectives can also work like verbs, just add the correspondent verb affixes:

<p class="MsoNormal"> Jást yzlor épógyaxak. [jaʊ̯st ˈyz.lʊɾ ˈɛæ̯.ʰpɔʊ̯.ʑa,xak] DEM-ABS overview-ABS NEG-be_boring-3SG.PRES Jást-0 yzlor-0 é-pógyak-ak <p class="MsoNormal"> = This overview is not boring. (yeah right...)

<p class="MsoNormal"> For nouns, the verb “ja” (to be) functions as copulum.

Adjectives
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Adjectives usually precede the noun they describe, but are put afterwards in order to express subjective opinion/preception. One can also leave out the endings if it isn’t felt to be necessary to carry across the gist of a sentence.

Adverbs
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> Adverbs  are formed by adding the suffix /-es (front), -os (back)/: /mésto/ (fast, adj.) --> /ésmésto/ (fast, adverb).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;tab-stops:416.95pt"> /-ínus/ can be added to the root of the adjective to express similarity: /kágillt/ (king) vs. /kágilltínus/ (king-like)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"> /-mán/ can be added to the root of the adjective to transform it into nouns: /va ḍ un/ (play) --> /va ḍ unmán/

Comparisons
<p class="MsoNormal"> /-mít-/ forms the comparative form of adjectives: /kágilltínusmít/ (more king-like)

<p class="MsoNormal"> Vaḍunmánog hjamulu<span id="cke_bm_44S" style="display: none;">   ápy mæsthé ix   éskágilltínusmít myllnýk. [‘ʋaj̟.ʏ̃n,mãʊ̯̃.nʊ ‘hjã.mʏ,lu ‘ɦaʊ.ʰpy ˈmæst,hɛ.ix ‘ɛæ̯s.kaʊ.ʑil̥,tʰɪ̃ə̯̃.nʏs.mɪə̯t ˈmyɬˌnʏ̃ɵ̯k] [Play-NZ-ERG ball-ACC NDEF 1-DUAL-COMP ADV-king-SEMBL-COMP throw-3SG.PRES] Vaḍun-mán-og hjamul-u ápy mæst-hé-ix és-kágillt-ínus-mít myllný-k. <p class="MsoNormal"> = The player throws baseballs  more  king-like  than  us two.

<p class="MsoNormal"> There’s no separate superlative form – in order to express that someone is the best at something one uses the comparative form without comparing anyone: Vaḍunmánog hjamulu ápy éskágilltínusmít myllnýk. <p class="MsoNormal"> = The player throws baseballs the most king-like.

<p class="MsoNormal"> = The player throws baseballs very king-like. (is another possible translation)

<p class="MsoNormal"> as... as – construction: Vaḍunmánog hjamulu ápy mæsthé iut  (= Essive)  éskágilltínusmít  myllnýk. <p class="MsoNormal"> = The player throws baseballs  as king-like  as  us two.

<p class="MsoNormal"> Note that one is using the comparative form here aswell.

Dialectal Realizations
<p class="MsoNormal">

Phonology
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36.0pt"> <p class="MsoNormal">
 * 1) Alveolo-palatal series shifts into true palatal. This never happens without also backing the velar series a bit, most frequently in the environment of back vowels.
 * 2) Preaspirated consonants are dropped and instead the preceding vowel is devoiced.
 * 3) Coda devoicing.
 * 4) Syncope of unpronounced syllables with [ə] or [ɐ].
 * 5) <h(liquid, nasal)> is pronounced as [(liquid, nasal) unvoiced], examples: [ɾ̥], [m̥], etc.
 * 6) Dropping nasals after vowels and just nasalizing those preceding vowels instead.
 * 7) Pharyngealization between back vowels.
 * 8) Replacing /h/ with its pharyngeal counterpart [ ħ] when /h/ appears together with another consonant in onset/coda.
 * 9) Diphthongs lose their second component + compensatory lengthening:

<p class="MsoNormal"> Among other also these shifts: <p class="MsoNormal">

Grammar

 * 1) The dual-affix -h- is pronounced [ χ ].
 * 2) Polypersonal verb agreement is used much more frequently.

Lexicon

 * 1) næma (standard) vs. tjók (dialectal): house
 * 2) køṡum (standard) vs. eþóm (dialectal): school