Ifpañul

Ifpañul is a language that was spoken in Nueva Tierra until the mid-300th century AW just before it diverged into several dialects and eventually languages, much in the same way Vulgar Latin did into to the Romance Languages. It is believed that the ultimate speakers of this language may have been the people of the 'sierras' of Peru and Ecuador, where heavy contact with Quechua and Aymara left a mark on it.

Vowels
What makes a striking difference with it's ancestor, Ifpañul only has three vowels, but they have long and short counterparts:

Words distinguished by vowel length are for example khába (layer) and khabá (capable). The only places where orthographically long vowels are not represented is word finally before an 'l', such as in 'animal', the last 'a' is actually pronounced longer than the first, or in words ending in 'r', such as 'thinir' (to have), where final vowel is long. Words with final 'z' also have a final long vowel.

Diphtongs are the combination of the three but there are a few rules. Short 'u' or 'i' before or after a long vowel is treated as a 'w' and 'y' respectively. However, words with a intervocal /w/, use the letter w to represent the sound: il áwa water).

Consonants
Another interesting development is the contrast between aspirated and non-aspirated voiceless consonants word-initially. Generally, the orthography of Ifpañul is purely phonetic, so a table with the explanation of each graph and digraph can be seen below:

Trigraphs like 'tsh', or 'tzh' therefore must sound like /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ respectively.

= Grammar =

Pronouns
Pronouns are divided into different cases, in a simplified form of Spanish, but with some interesting developments, such as the singular forms of some pronouns ending in 't' due to an analogy between udít (polite you) and udí (polite plural you)

Nominative
These pronouns work when they are the subject of a sentence.


 * ízu is actually a demonstrative that conjugates for distance (see:Demonstratives)
 * These pronouns are female when the group in reference is exclusively female, if it is mixed, the unmarked masculine form is used.

Instrumental
The closest meaning in English can be found in the kind of pronoun used in the phrase ‘to me’. They are only conjugated in the first and second singular persons, and in the rest, the nominative form along with the preposition ‘’a’’ is used.

Prepositional
These are where English would use 'with me' as in 'She went with me', or 'with him' in a sentence such as 'She brought him with her'. The latter in Ifpañul is: 'Si le thráju khujsíu', but 'le' as dealt with later, is the accusative for 'him'.

Accusative
Used as in 'He hit me.' or 'Give us'. In contrast to Spanish, the pronouns for each gender all collapsed into a simgle form, li.

Dative
To cut it short, it is the same as the Accusative except that the pronoun li, used for the third person is replaced by si.

Reflexive and Clitics
Equivalent to the notion in English of 'myself' as in 'I washed my face', except that the idea is more along the lines of 'I washed to myselfface'.


 * The nominative forms for the reflexive ‘si’ would be íl mímu, íat míma, íu, etc.; for example: phára íl = para íl mímu (for himself).

These go attached to the imperative verb, or to verbs that are aimed at someone or something, as in to give him - tárli  (See:Verbs), and represent the dative (-ti, -mi, -si, -li, -nu):


 * Tá = He/she/it/you give(s)
 * Tánu = Give us.

Suffixes -lu and -la serve as the direct object, as in give it to me:


 * Tánulu = Give it to us.

The forms -ti, -mi- si, - li, -nu, -la and -lu mean the same as those seen in previous cases.

Great freedom goes with these clitics as to where they can go:


 * Udí thambí ijkrírámi (You will also write to me)
 * Púymi a láar il phílu (I am going to wash (my) hair)
 * Púy a láarmi il phílu (I am going to wash my hair)

Number
Through sound changes in the language, most nouns don’t inflect for number but a group still is inflected in it’s plural form in five somewhat predictable manners:

The ‘li’ form
Words ending in 'l' form their plurals adding an 'i'.

However one has to notice that adjectives ending in ‘l’ also have the same inflectional paradigm.

The 'ni' form
This one is less predictable because even though most nouns with stress on the final were inflected this way, some others did not and so one had to have these learnt. During Late Ifpañul this became a more frequent inflectional paradigm among nouns with stress on the final syllable.

A great deal of these are the ‘tion’ nouns which in Spanish were ‘ción’.

This form is used also in some adjectives:

(note how the stress was not on the last syllable, or vowel)
 * júi - young
 * júini - young (plural)

The ‘ri’ form
These are predictable as the noun in the singular form always ends in ‘r’:

The ‘t/y’ form
This inflection is more complex and stems from nouns that used to alternate between ‘d’ and ‘des’ in their singular and plural forms respectively. The vowel that comes right before the ‘t’ in the singular is stressed in the plural form.

Relatively few nouns and no adjectives inflect this way.

The ‘z’ form
This form is unpredictable and affects only a few nouns. It works regularly by adding a ‘z’ at the end of the plural form:

This only affects a few adjectives, which are seen in the Adjectives section.

Gender
Due to levelling, the vast majority of nouns that end with ‘a’ as a vowel are analyzed as feminine and go with the feminine article. The rest are all masculine. Only a few nouns are exceptions to the rule.

' tends to assimilate to L'áwa, and so do all nouns which use la or lu and begin with a vowel. However it is not written, but is understood in speech.

Articles
These inflect for number and gender much in the same way the articles would do in German, with the exception that they do not change for case, as in Spanish, as in the plural they merge:

Contractions
Some articles are shortened in a few cases, such as ‘til’ comes from ‘ti il’ (of the). A table with the common ones:

Demonstratives
There are 3 kinds of demonstrative, whose use depends on the distance between the speaker and the described thing/person. The demonstrative equates to the English terms "this" and "that", although the word used must agree for number and gender.

Neuter demonstratives have the meaning of "this (or that) thing, concept or idea": Ízu idá ogí (That is okay). Sometimes, neuter demonstratives can convey a pejorative connotation: Khída ízu ti aí (Take that out of there).

Possesive
Show possesion. There are two distinctions, just like there is in English with 'my' and 'mine', where the first is an indefinite and the latter a definite pronoun.

Other determiners

 * Indefinite quantity: phúgu (little), múshu (a lot), sufizhíni (enough)...


 * Cardinals: u (one/a, an), tu (two), thrí (three)...


 * Ordinals: phrimíru (first), siújdu (second), thirsíru (third)...


 * Cardinal and ordinal numbers are adjectives of amount (like mucho and poco) and precede nouns (tu animali = two animals, phrimíra phirsúna = first person).


 * Interrogatives: khí (what/who), khuájdu (when), khúmu (how), tújdi (where), phurkí (why), khual (which).

The cardinal number ú is declined according to gender as úna (feminine) and únu (masculine plural) and the interrogatives khual (which) and khi (when referring to 'who' instead of 'what') are declined as khuali (for plural) and khíni (plural) respectively. The rest are indeclinable.

Adjectives
The preferred place for adjectives is after the noun they modify, but a few exceptions have different meaning when coming after it.

Inflection
Most adjectives do not inflect according to the number of the noun (but some do just like the examples of declension shown in the Nouns section), but most do inflect for the word's gender, which is either feminine or masculine.

For example, 'úmbri' (man/men), which is masculine, and 'mugil' (woman) which is feminine, cause adjectives to inflect differently:


 * Il úmbri píu (the beautiful man/men)
 * La mugil pía (the beautiful woman)

Adjectives that end in 'u' in their masculine form turn it into 'a' before feminine nouns. Other adjectives, such as 'priájti' (smart, brilliant), do not conjugate and the final vowel remains the same.

Comparatives and Superlatives
The particle 'ma' before an adjective turns it into a comparative, such as in 'ma lijtu' (smarter). Even though a superlative as in English 'best', compared to 'better' does not exist in Ifpañul, the including of the article before the adjective conveys this meaning, such as in il ma líjtu (the smartest). The trick is determining how definite or specific is the object being spoken of.

Suffixes added on the end of adjectives (replacing the last vowel or consonant) give the adjective different grades of meaning, such as:

(these can be found on the table lower on Derivatives )
 * azu/a - very. Example: puínu (good) - puínazu/a (very good)
 * ízimu/a - very. Ex: múzhu (a lot) - muzhízimu (more than a lot)
 * idu/a - diminutive. Ex: phúgu (a bit, few) - phugídu (a very small amount)

Only a few adjectives have more synthetic ways of changing, such as puínu and migúr, which mean 'good' and 'better' respectively. Other examples are málu and phiúr (bad and worse). Coincidentally these are most of the time the same English conjugates irregularly.

Verbs
Much of the complex verbal inflection was retained in Ifpañul, in comparison to sister languages such as Esupanyá which underwent a great deal of simplification, but some general simplifications occurred, such as final 's' in second person dissapearing making the verb conjugates the same in some tenses as for third person. Other important changes include a modalizing of the past tense to convey information such as how certain the speaker is of the information and how reliable it is, and an abundance of constructions using the gerund to indicate perfectiveness.

An example of a verb conjugated is the following:

thinir (to have)

Therefore the following for example mean...


 * Thíjgu - I have


 * Thúi - I had


 * Thijdrí - I will have (this tense is rare, mostly replaced by the verb 'ir' and the infinitive)


 * Thijdría - I/you/he/she/it would have

As shown, the norm normally is to omit the pronoun, but like in that last example it is not clear without context WHO the verb applies to, so when ambiguity is found, the pronoun is used to specify.

Usages of Non-Personal Forms
The Gerund form (see table above) is used along a motion verb to convey the equivalent of the English or Spanish participle. A few examples are:


 * Il pínu khumíu (literally: He came eating/Vino comiendo) (meaning: He came having eaten already)
 * La kháma thigí thijdíjdu (lit: I left the bed making/Dejé la cama tendiendo) - I left the bed made.

The Participle form, as will seen following, plays an important role onveying other kinds of information.

Present Tense Indicative

 * Simple Present- uses one verb rather than an auxiliary and denotes that the action continues: 'thíjgu' (I have), 'khúmi' (you eat), 'pulámu' (we fly). It can be used to serve different functions, as:
 * Punctual Present, referring to actions that happen as the speaker says them: Íl tibára (He shoots).
 * Historical Present, giving a narrative quality to events of the past, bringing them to the present: Juá Juzí la Tshírra til Núrti tigúbri il 1492. (Juá Juzí discovers the Northern Land in 1492).
 * The future-in-present, for actions that take place a later moment, and the speaker is certain of them happening: La simána prúksima tráju. (Next week I work)
 * Imperative Present, expressing an order: Thú ti mi khása báthi aúra. (Order: Now you leave my house).

And the common tenses seen in English and Spanish, such as the habitual present (I work here).

The Past Tense and Veracity
The reason why the tenses are not exactly divided into the moods Indicative, Subjunctive, Conditional and Imperative is because the Past Tense in general is used to indicate veracity, that is, the speaker takes in account certain he/she is of the information, if it has been experienced directly and if the source of information is reliable then. The past tense carrying this meaning are the following:

Certain past
Originating from the Simple Perfect Past (see verb example above), equating to English 'I ate' or Spanish 'comí' verbally, it indicates that the information is correct, reliable and the speaker has experienced it personally, therefore is certain of it:

Thigí la yái (I left the keys, and I am certain because I clearly remember doing so).

'I Think So' Past
Implies that the speaker is not responsible for the reliability of the statement, and has not verified or experienced it personally:

Íu á 'philíausi. (They have fought eachother, but I was not there personally to see them do it).

Bold, italics and underline show correspondences between each part in Ifpañul and English. Underlined 'a' represents the auxiliary verb 'áir' (to have). (See:Auxiliary Verbs)

Zero Responsibility Past
This last construction demonstrates no certainty, and the speaker does not make him/herself responsible for the information:

Álgu  áía khumíu mi phajtil. (Someone  had eaten my cake... but I can't be sure, I might be totally wrong about it).

''Bold, italics and underlining show correspondences between each part in Ifpañul and English. Underlined áía represents the copula 'to have' verb (áir) (See: Copula)''

Future Tense Indicative
Quite similar to that in Spanish, the Future Tense in Spanish, it can be constructed in several ways:

khumirí (I will eat), thijdrímu (We will have) puya khumir (I am going to eat), pámua thinír (we are going to have) The Compound Future Tense uses an auxiliary verb which originates from the Spanish 'ir'+'a' construction. (See below: Copula: To Have)
 * Simple Future:
 * Compound Future:

Conditional Mood
Expreses a hypothetical action that would arise from a condition, such as in:

I would have gone, if you had told me.

I would eat, if I were hungry.

From the verb table above:

Thijdría = I/you/he/she/it would have

Subjunctive Past
The subjunctive follows the conditional in a sentence, verbs conjugate in it when they represet the action that the conditional states that would happen if the condition is met:

*the 'si' in brackets represents an old particle which was often ommited, which meant 'if'.
 * Iría, (si) tigízimi.

I would have gone, had you told me. (or: If you had told me)

Khumiría, (si) thúzi ámbri. (Literally: if I had hunger)

I would eat, if I were hungry.

The subjunctive does not necesarily have to go before the clause in conditional OR at all with a conditional, as in the following examples:

Tigízimi, iría.

If you had told me, I would have gone.

Thúzi ambri, khumiría.

If I were hungry, I would eat.

(Si) sulu thúzi tiniru...

If only I had money...

Subjunctive Present
This tense is used when dealing with a hypothetical action and its possibility, normally as a condition, but not in the way the conditional mood works:

Khuájdu thíjga tiníru, khumprarí una kháza.

When I have money, I will buy a house.

However, using the present tense in the last part of the sentence instead of the future tense (as shown above) and present tense instead of subjunctive, it implies inmediacy of action and also gives it a habitual aspect, that is:

When I have money I buy a house (every time I get money I do).

Khuájdu thíjgu tiníru, khúmpru una kháza.

Imperative
Expresses orders, and inflects for person, unlike English.

¡Thí ídu! (Have this!)

Thijgámu phajtil. (Let's have cake)

Ir (will)
This verb is an exception to how verbs conjugate because the suffix 'a' has melted on it, making it end different from the related verb 'ir' which means 'to go'. It goes before an infinitive verb and with each tense gives the following meaning thar it is the equivalent of 'will' as in 'I will eat' in English.

ir (will)

áir (to have)
This verb works in the same way as the English auxiliary 'have' (but as the verb showing possesion, as shown later on) much of the time, but the past tense was gradually dropped, leaving as vestiges 'úu' and 'úru'.