Lutanian

           

§1. Script and pronunciation basics

The conlang uses the Latin script - basic alphabet with various diacritics. It is a pluricentric language regarding pronunciation, vocabulary and writing.

The letter W [vé doule] is not a part of the alphabet, but the letter Ŷ is included instead representing the sound / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/ with the alphabetical name / ͡jʝe/ or /je/.

A         /a/

B          /be/

C          /se/, /͡tse/

D         /de/

E          /e/

F          /ef:/

G         /ɡe/ ~ /ʒe/

H         /a̯̯j͡.͡tʃ/ ~/a̯ʃ/

I           /i/

J           /ʒi/ ~ /'ʒɔ.ta/

K         /kap/, /ka̯p˺/

L          /ɛl/

M         /ɛm/

N         /ɛn/

O         /ɔ/ ~ /o/

P          /pe/

Q         /ku/, /ke/

R          /ɛr:/

S          /ɛs:/

T          /te/

U         /u/

V         /ve/

X         /iks/

Y         /i.'ɡre:ɡa/

Ŷ         / ͡jʝe/

Z          /ze/ ~ /'zɛ.ta/

§2. Vowels

The basic vowels in stressed syllables are pronounced as follows:

a          /a/

e          /e/ or /ɛ/

i           /i/

o          /o/ or /ɔ/

u          /u/

â, î       /ə/

ô          /ɔ/

Consonantic sounds:

î           between vowels = /j/

ŷ          / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/ (sometimes represented by -ii-)

û          /w/

Simple vowel letter combinations:

-ai-       /ɛ/

-ei-       optionally /e:/ or /ei̯/

Any diacritic added will produce a different sound, e.g.

-aî-, ài  /aj/                 -ái-      /aɪ̯/, /aj/

âi, îi    /əj/

Acute or grave accent generally mark a stressed syllable:

á, é, í, ó, ú        generally a bit longer like /a:/ /e:/ /i:/ /o:/, /u:/

à, è, ò, ù           generally shorter, like /a̯ / /ɛ/, /o̯/~ /ɔ̯/, /u̯/

In stressed syllables, é /e/ is distinguished from è /ɛ/ by the degree of openness. Not all speakers make that exact distinction, some speakers will thus pronounce the stressed è as /ɑ/.

§2.1. Word stress

Generally, nominal words have stress on the penultimate syllable of their plural or longest form:

cugina /ku.'ʒi.na/ - (the) kitchen (nominative and oblique)

muros /'mu.ros/ - walls (nominative/accusative)

natiunes /na(t).'sju.nes/     nations (nominative/accusative)

nativos /na.'ti.vos/              - native(s) (masculine pl. adjective) - singular natíu

Shorter, singular forms maintain the stress position from longer forms, i.e.

natiú                /na(t).'sju/               - nation

natíu, natif       /na.'tiw/, /na.'tif/       - native (masculine sg. adjective)

Verb forms stress is determined by grammar rules (see below).

Some adjectives in -ic, -fic, etc., and some nouns have regular penultimate syllable stress the stress in the basic masculine singular nominative form (ie. the shortest form), maintaining it in all other forms: històric /is.'tɔ.rik/, classic, maňňific, nautic /'naw.tik/, biològic /bjo.'lɔ:ʒik/.

§2.1.  Diphthongs and triphthongs

There are 18 diphtong sounds with 18-20 possible representations in writing.

The combinations ui, iu account for four different diphthongs: /uj/ and /wi/, /ju/ and /iw/.

The sounds /wi/and /iu/ are usually spelt uí, íu.

Diphthongs are built of a strong (long) component:

a /a/, e /e/ ~ /ɛ/ (except in -ea), o /o/ ~ /ɔ/ or â /ə/, and a weak (short) component:

i /j/ or u /w/.

The writing convention for /ə/: âi/ îi /əj/, âu /əw/

The default values in stressed syllables are:

-ea /ja/ ~ /e̯a/, -oa, -ua /wa/

-ui /uj/, -iu /ju/

-ue /we/, after g-, q-: /e/ ~ /ɛ/ gue /ɡe/, que /ke/

Reduced diphtongs have a value of /ə/ for e-, and // for -a-:

-ea, -ie              /jə/ ~ /jɐ/

-oa, -ua, -ue      /wɐ/ ~ /wə/

-ei                    /əj/ ~ /(j)i̯/ ~ /(j)ɪ̯/

The diphthongs -ia, -ie in stressed syllables can optionally be represented by: ǎ, ě /ja/,  /je/ (not after g-, c-, -x-). These diacritics are not used word-initially (ia, ie).

Occasional triphthongs occur by adding the weak (short) sounds of i /j/, u or û /w/ to the front or back of a diphthong. Example: sieis / sěis        / sjejs/

There are 15 possible triphthongs with 16 representations in spelling

uaî, uau, iaî, iau

uei, ueu, iei, ieu

iua, uai = oai /wa̯j/

uâi, iâi

In diphthongs, sometimes an accent mark (acute or grave) can change the stressed component, or break the diphthong into two separate syllables:

-ui /uj/,          -uí /wi/           -ía        /'i.a/

-iu /ju/,          -íu /iw/           -úe       /-'u.e/

§2.1. Optionally nasal vowels

The vowels ą, ę, ų have nasal pronunciations. Some speakers and dialects do not pronounce them the same way, and do not employ nasality.

-ą         /ɑ̃/                  or                    /ɔ/ ~ /ɒ/                    (non nasal)

-ę         /ɛ̃/, /ẽ/          or                    /ɑ:/, /ɛ/, /e/

-ų         /ɔ̃/, /õ/          or                     /ɔ/

Regional pronunciations may vary, so there are possibilities also for: /ɐ̃(j)/ /ã(j)/, /ẽ(j)/, /wõ(j)/. Word internal phonemes represented by -ą-, -ę- and -ų- can be pronounced non-nasaly as mostly more open sounds: /ɑ/, /ɛ/ ~ /e/ and /u:/ or /ɒ/ ~ /ɔ/. In some regions the final - ę serves as an audible /e/ ~ /ɛ/, distinguished from final -e /ə/ (see §2.2.)

Recognised ortographic alternatives:

-ą         -am                 -ã

-ę         -em                  -eã       (-ẽ)

-ų         -om                  -õ

§2.2. Vowel reduction features

Standard conlang pronunciation:

In unstressed final syllables and initial syllables, the vowel -e- is reduced to /ə/ or dropped

case /'ka.zə/ - house, cases /'ka.zəs/ - houses. The diphtong standard values are not reduced in unstressed syllables, except optional ei /ej/ to /əj/ in initial syllables.

casei /'ka.zej/ - house (oblique, dative or genitive), alternative: /'ka.zəj/

eimà /ej.'ma/ - to love, alternative: /ej.'ma/, /i̯.'ma/

Original pronunciation of -ę is not changed (open and or nasal)

The pronunciation of diphthongs is original and unreduced

Regional features:

1. reduction of all unstressed -e-

a) in open syllables only: merità /m(ə)ri.'ta/,             fermà  /fer.'ma/, melodí(e) /me(l).lo.'di(ə)/

b) in all unstressed syllables: meretà   /mər(ə).'ta/,   fermà  /fər.'ma/, melodí(e) /m(ə).lo.'di(ə)/

2. reduction of unstressed -a- to /ɐ/ and -o to /u/.

a) (il) canta      /il.'kan.tɐ/ ~ /'kan.ta/

b) (la) casa       /lɐ.'ka.zɐ/ ~ /la.'ka.za/

c) (la) melodía /lɐ. m(ə).lu.'di.ɐ/ ~ /la.mə.lo.'di.a/

d) (los) casos   /lus.'ka.zus/ ~ /los.'ka.zos/

2.1. partial reduction of unstressed diphtongs:

a) Europa         / iw.'rɔ.pɐ/ ~ /ew.'rɔ.pa/ /-ro-/

b) canteu         / 'kan.tju/, /'kan.ti̯w/ ~ stand. /'kan.tɛw/

2.2. simplification of -au- to /ɔ/

a) aur               /ɔr / ~ /awr/

b) cantau         /'kan.ˌtɔ:/, /'kan.ˌtɔ̃/ ~ stand. /'kan.taw/

3. no vowel reduction:

a) une case /ˌu.ne.'ka.ze/ a house                 standard: /u.n(ə).'ka.z(ə)/

b) les cases /les.'ka.zes/ (the) houses                        standard: /ləs.'ka.zəs/

Some regions do not use open vowels /ɛ/, /ɔ/, but instead always have a closed variant /e/ (for e, é), and /o/. In those regions è is pronounced as /a/, /ɑ/, or similar.

§3. Consonants

Consonants with diacritical marks and some special consonants are:

B' or b̌ - represents /w/ in some words with original -b- or -p-, like pob'l (also pob̌l, poubl, poûl)

C - represents /k/ in front of -a-, -o-, -u-, -â- and /s/- in ce, ci, cî - do not use c ai → quai /kɛ/

Ç - always /s/: in front of -a, -o, -u, -ai-, and word finally

CC - /͡ts/, popular: /ks/, CH - /h/, /k/, çh /ʃ/

Ď (D');  ď / d' - soft /dj/ ~ /d͡ʑ/, in some regions /ð/, in unstressed syllables dia, die, use ďa, ďe

G /ɡ/ in front of -a-, -o-, -u-, -â- and /ʒ/- in ge, gi, gî, regionally /dʒ/ - do not use g ai → guai /ɡɛ/

GU /ɡ/ in front of -e-, -i-, -î-, (including é, è, í) and -ai-; /ɡw/ in front of -a-, -o-, -u-

-îg-, -ig- after a vowel: /dʒ/, intervocalically /ʒ/

H - silent letter

J - always /ʒ/, regionally /dʒ/

L - /l/, regionally /ɫ/

LL - /ʎ/, regionally /j/, possible ortographic variant: lh

Ň - /ɲ/, possible as doubled: ňň /ɲ:/, ortographic variant: nh, nnh

Q - always as QU, /k/ in front of -e-, -i-, -î-, (including é, è, í) and -ai-; /kw/ in front of -a-, -o-, -u-

Ř - used for /rj/, in unstressed syllables ria, rie, use řa, ře

S - /s/, intervocalically /z/, even at word boundaries; regionally always /s/

SS - always /s/

Ť (T'); ť / t'- used for /tj/, in unstressed syllables tia, tie, use ťa, ťe

TX - /tʃ/, TG = /dʒ/, Sť = /ʃ/ ~ /ɕ:/, çh /ʃ/ in front of a, ai, o, u

X - /ʃ/ in front of -e, -i, -î, -ai, /ks/ in loanwords like taxi

ix, -îx /ʃ/ after a vowel

§4. Basic syntax

The basic syntax is (S) - V - O. The conlang permits subject hiding (as pro-drop languages do).

NOMINALS TOPICS

'''§5. Basic nominal morphology. Personal pronouns'''.

Nouns exhibit the categories of:

(1) gender (masculine, feminine, marginally neuter),

(2) case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, general oblique)

(3) grammatical number (singular and plural)

(4) definiteness (marked by articles and/or inflection endings)

Nouns are sorted into five inflection groups (I-V) based on their morphology.

The oblique (non-subject) forms exhibit SPECIFIC thematic vowels:

-a-        group I (feminine gender)

-e-        group III (all genders) and V (feminine)

-u-        groups II and IV (masculine gender)

§5.1. Cases summary

Nominative - denotes the subject in the SVO structure

Anna is singing. Anna canta.

Accusative - denotes the direct object of the verb (DO) in the S- V- (D)O structure

Anna is reading a letter. Anna lé a carta.

Dative - denotes the indirect object to which the action relates (IO) in the S- V- (DO) - IO structure

Anna is singing (a song) to her boyfriend. Anna canta (a cançon) li fiu (sui).

Oblique (prepositional) - denotes circumstantial information not essential to a simple sentence structure (SVO).

The noun is typically introduced by a preposition (de, în,...)

Anna canta sîns musica. Anna is singing wihout music.

Anna canta de fiis. Anna is singing about boys.

Some phrases are not prepositional:

Previu annu am visitat lu parc. Last year I visited the park.

Mardie visit(u) lu far. On Tuesdays* I visit my father.

* Tuesday is used in the (oblique) singular. Weekdays (like mardi /'mar.di/ - Tuesday) are written in lowercase.

Genitive - denotes possession or partition of something:

Puarta caselui ie (a)uperta. The doors to the house are open.

Pars (al) mei - a part of me

Some prepositions require a certain case.

per, ad, contre, între (înintre) (between) - accusative (for, to-a location, against, between)

al, ale - genitive indefinite article (preposition)

a - as a preposition introducer of the direct object (acc.) of some verbs

a - as as a preposition introducer of the indirect object (dative)

Oblique case usage

de - from / about (used with the oblique case)

'''ab ... a ...''' - from - to

în, nutre, untre - inside (in; at static function)

sîns - without

cu - with

Some nouns have become prepositions or prepositional phrases petrified in their oblique case

(â)causa - because ... + genitive case indefinite noun or dative definite noun

a-face, aface, face(-)a (facea) - towards, to (+ dative noun)

Movement

Moving to a specific location requires the location noun in the accusative, while moving towards the location requires the dative case (preposition a-face). Static information about being in a location requires the prepositional oblique case.

Examples:

causa fillei(i) - because of the girl        (dative case - final -i represents definite articulation)

causa fille - because of a girl                (genitive case)

amiga unui fille de scoala -                 the friend of a girl from school (genitive case)

a face scolei /muru                 - towards school/towards the wall                  (dative case)

ad scoalą                          - to school                    (accusative)

în scoala                                  - in school                    (oblique)

§5.2. Noun inflection [1]

Part 1: Nominative, oblique and accusative singular and plural

Nouns have the structure of: stem + ending. Some stems exhibit diphthongization or simple vowel changes in the stem through certain forms. Group III nouns may have an infix in the form:

stem +[ infix ] + ending

Singular forms

Nouns are arranged into groups based on the theme vowel exhibited in the oblique case (singular) ending: -a (I), -u (II, IV), or -e /ə/(III, V).

Examples: casa (I), muru (II), reiie (III), nave (III), anîmale (III), fruitu (IV), face (facie) (V) - oblique singular.

Nominative (subject) forms typically have a zero ending, and a weak -e /ə/ in the first group.

No infix is present in the nominative singular of the third group (indefinite forms).

Examples: case /'ka.zə/, mur /mur/, rei /rej/, nau /na̯w/, anîmau, faç /fa̯s/.

The accusative uses the corresponding thematic nasal ending -ą /ɑ̃/, -ę /ɛ̃/ or -ų /ɔ̃/, but only if no marked article is used (casą, murų, reiię), otherwise nouns have an oblique form with zero ending, or -a in the first group:

o casa, lu mur, lu reii /re̯d͡ʒ/ ~ /re̯j͡ʝ/, possible ortography reig (confer with nominative indefinite rei)

In the nominative case some nouns have a distinct definite form used with no articles or determiners:

casa (nominative definite) vs. case (nominative indefinite)  la casa /la.'ka:.za/

reig (nominative definite) vs. rei (nominative indefinite)    	    el rei    /əl.rej/

Nouns considered neuter have the accusative form identical to the nominative form:

anîmau /ɐn.'maw/ - neuter nom./acc. (in front of vowel: anîmal)

Plural forms

Plural nouns have equal nominative/accusative forms:

feminine in -es /əs/: cases, naves, faces (facies) (groups: I, III, V)

masculine /neuter in -os /os/ (II, IV) or -es /əs/ (group III): muros, reiies, fruituos (fruisos)

Nouns in group IV often retain the theme vowel in the plural: fruituos, fruisos (sound change).

The oblique forms can be generalised to the ending -is for all groups (groups IV and V retain the theme vowels -u-, -e-):

casis, muris, reiis/reigis, fruituis (fruisis, fruzis), faceis (facieis) /'fa̯s.jejs/.

Where phonetically possible, the ending -is can be contracted to -s: murs, fruits

Nouns in groups III-IV can have alternative plural oblique endings: -iu /ju/ (III), -uiu (IV), -eu (V): naviu, reiiu (reigiu), fruituiu, facieu.

Examples: singular

Plural The marked form is definite and expresses gender through a de facto post-posited definite article form:

-iis (masculine, neuter)

-eis (feminine)

Part 2: Nominative, oblique and accusative - articles

The definite article (l'articlu definíu) has the following forms

Examples: singular The appended nominative article can be used in groups II and IV with nouns ending in -u: murul, fruitul.

The usage of accusative definite article with preposition in the singular is avoided by using nasal endings on nouns:

currs a casą - I am running home.

Plural

The front oblique articulization is used when gender is to be disguised. Some prepositions combine with the article (els, -ls).

a + els = als

de + els = dels

în + lis /els = îns, nels

cu(n) + els = cuns

others: non contracted

causa lis = because of the ...

ab lis = from the

untr-els, în lis = in the

sîns els - sîn lis = without the

cun els = with the

The indefinite article (l'articl' îndefiníu) has the following forms

Short feminine "a" is used only for the accusative (direct object). The expected regular oblique form unis /'u.nis/ exists as a numeral one inflection (distributive plural oblique - "ones").

The indefinite article always comes in front of the noun.

Some regions use an invariable indefinite plural article: sum /sum/ - meaning "some".

§5.3. Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns' forms in the nominative are The plural pronouns can be spelt: ny, vy. Nominative pronouns in front of a conjugated verb can be spelt without the acute accent: ti, ni, vi.

The personal pronouns' forms in the accusative (direct object) - are proclitics:

In imperative forms, these direct object pronouns are used as enclitics, with a change in the plural enclitic form: -nâs! /nəs/, -vâs! /vəs/, and hyphenation.

Full forms:

The general oblique forms are stressed, standalone words, with no clitic alternatives.

Full, stressed forms:

Third person forms for the oblique and accusative

§5.4. Specific points of nominal inflection

There can be specific sound changes in nominal inflection as follows:

a.       stem vowel changes (and diphthongization)

b.     stem final consonant changes and/or vocalisation (l > u) or elision

c.      infix addition in 3rd group nouns (two subtypes: stressed and unstressed)

d.     stem bordering changes on addition of a regular ending

Example in (d): animau > animal + iu (oblique pl.) > theor. animaliu /ʎu/> animaiiu /͡jʝu/ or animaîu /ju/ (l - elision)

In some regions the vocalised -l- (-û- /w/) is kept in front on the vocalic ending -iu:

animal > animau + iu (oblique pl.) > theor. animaliu /ʎu/> animàuiu /ɐ.ni.'ma̯w.ju/

§5.4.1. Group I/II (nouns and adjectives)

(1) Intact stem - ille /'i̯.ʎə/ - island, ale /'a̯.lə/ - wing, ďacrime /'djak.ri.mə/, fille /'fi̯.ʎə/, mur /mur/, urs /urs/

The stem doesn't change, so the regular oblique and nominative definite forms just receive an unstressed thematic vowel:

illa, ala, ďacrima, filla /-a̯/ ~ /ɐ/, muru, ursu /u̯/

(2) Intact stem with final consonant c/g /k/ ~ /ɡ/:

vaque /'va.kə/- oblique vaca /'va.ka̯/, pl. nom./acc. vaques, obl. vaquis

plage /'pla.ʒə/- oblique platga /'pla̯.dʒ:a̯/, pl. plages, plagis. Some regions: plaja /'pla:.ʒa̯/

Stem final -g- in:

plague /'pla.ɡə/- oblique plaga /'pla̯.ga̯/ - the plague

The nasal direct object ending can be attached to stem final consonants

-c- /k/, -g- /ɡ/-tg- /dʒ/, -j- /ʒ/, -ii- /͡jʝ/, -i- /j/, and all other consonants including doubled ones (like -tt-, -dd-), but not to ortoghraphical forms:

tx /͡tʃ/ (voiced -tg- instead), ť/tj/, ď /dj/ qu-/gu- (as /k/, /ɡ/), ŷ (-ii- instead).

(3) Stem final consonant elisions

In examples like

(a) amie /'a.mi̯.ə/ - a female friend, full stem amic-, consider masculine amic /'a.mi̯k/.

The oblique forms are: amica, pl. amiques/amíes, amiquis/amiis (masc. amíu, amicos/amíos),

The nasal ending can be attached to the stressed final vowel (if not diphthongised):

amíų but standard amicą. In colloquial speech, full elision of /k/ frequently occurs: amia, amią.

The noun fille /'fi̯.ʎə/ - young girl only exhibits elision in the masculine form fí (oblique fiu), from fill(u), because of clarity issues.

In gender non-specific plural oblique, fills, it coincides with "girls" (a noun from the same root, fille(s)). An irregular derivation from this root arose for the meaning of a son (fis, influenced by French fils)

The word for girl and daughter (fille) doesn't have inflectional differences.

(b) example: sté(e) (steie, steu), a star, and famí(e) - family

In this example the -ll- /ʎ:/ sound cannot be dropped in definite forms in front of a short /i̯/~ /ɪ̯/, but it gets dropped in front of /e:/. The forms in -u derive from theoretical original -l- or -ll- by vocalisation l > u: *ste/ɫ/ > steu /stew/, and are reminiscent of masculine group II nouns like fiu.

(4) Emergence of diphthongs: example: memoře (memoie), I, memory, xiinťe, I, science

This is the typical distribution of -o- /o/ vs. -oa- /wa/. The soft -ř- can be spelt as ri /rj/ ~ /ɾi̯/, and is not pronounced by some speakers in the typical words (memoie(s) /j/). Confer examples like hîstoře, gloře. The stem final diphthong /ɾi̯ə/ is lost when a middle diphthong -oa- occurs: -r-a /rʌ/

The form with the postpositioned article memoria, loses the diphthong:

memoar-a-a > memoria /- rja/ ~ /ri̯.ʌ/. Typically, any plural ending causes monophtongization, except in contracted forms with non-syllabic endings (memoars).

Example This is a typical example of -o- to -oa- nouns. In the contracted oblique plural, due to -l- vocalisation (scoal - scoaû) a triphthong occurs: scoaus /skwa̯ws/. A regional variant collapses the triphthong -oau- to -ou- /ow/: scous, scouls.

In the previous two examples, you see the stem final change ť /tj/ or -c- /s/ to ça /sʌ/ (absorbed diphthong from original -tie). The original diphthong is syllabified when article suffixation (-a) occurs: xiinti-a-a> xiinti-(Ø)-a > xiin-ti-a → /ti̯.ʌ/.

More examples: viete (I), life

In this example, the -ie- of viete /ʋje.'tə/ ~ /ʋi̯.'e.tə/ is etymologically considered as two syllables (vi-e-te) and so the de facto diphthong -ie- persists in the plural. The related adjective "old" (masculine sg. indefinite) vět does feature a diphthong /je/ (from Lat. vetus).

In the post-articulation form, the theoretical viada-a > viaua-a is "contracted" into viaua /'ʋja̯.wɐ/. The vocalisation of /ð/ to /w/ is present in certain forms. The feminine noun water (eiue /'e̯w:ɐ/) has some stem vowel and consonant changes. The plural is less used, with the definite singular form frequently replacing the plural meaning (e.g. in geography). The form aua can be written as: ab̌a /'a̯.wa/.

Masculine noun: vânt /ʋə̯nt/ ~ /ʋəŋ(t)/, II, wind

The simply iotacised vowels can be preserved in the plural forms, but they are lost when the ending is a diphtong or long vowel (vântiis). In some regions, all forms with -ě- have a simple -e-: věntos /'ʋjen.tos/- ventos /'ʋɛn.tos/ ~ /e:/

The same pattern is employed in the noun: sârf - servos /sěrvos (servant)

(5) stem final consonant changes. In addition to the upper example of:

sârf - servos /sěrvos (servant)

consider another with stem final changes: -n- > nn /n:/ > ň /ňň /ɲ/

(a) The typical pronunciation of the word year would use an open, long, even nasal "a" just in the bare form an: /ɑn/ ~ / ɑ̃:n/, some dialects have oan /wɑn/.

In all other forms it is rather a shorter/a̯/ (with no initial o-: oan, annu).

The word for (anatomical) anus would also be an or àn /a̯n/, with all inflectional forms having the same root an-: anu(lu), anos, ...

The word for ring could be identical to "an" as "anus" (in a broader sense through context), but also: annul, m. /'a̯n:ul/ ~ [ɐ̯̃] - ring (with a diminutive suffix -ul on the original root ann-). This word has regular masculine inflection with a fixed stem: annulu(lu) - oblique singular (definite).

Adjective morphology (group A)

Adjectives behave just like nouns, but in form, they cover only the corresponding groups I-III of nouns.

Adjectives of group A have their matching gendered forms in the corresponding noun patterns of group I (for feminine) and group II (for masculine and neuter).

Adjectives of group B use the inflection pattern of group III nouns for all corresponding genders of one adjective (m., f., n.). The gender pattern is the same for all, with slight differences in certain details (addition of final -e to feminine nominative sg. forms).

Adjective inflection is diminished when a definite noun accompanies them, but they do have all the forms equivalent to nouns (particularly when the modified noun is hidden).

Masculine/neuter form (corresponding to group 2 nouns) Feminine form (corresponding to group 1 nouns)

Example: adjective (e)strâin /(ə)'strə̯j̃n/ - strange has the same pattern

sum fios estraňňos /filles estraňňes - some strange boys/girls.

Consider another adjective example:

tard, -e/-a/-u (late) group A

Feminine form (corresponding to group 1 nouns)

Exemplary adjective cllar /kʎa:(r)/ ~ /kja:(ɾ)/ also has regular inflection (like tard).

Since the stem is regular with no diphthong, the oblique singular articulized form is regular:

tardaua /'tar.dɐ.wɐ/ - the late one.

The adjectives in -ic (like històric /ɪs.'tɔ̯.rik/, classic, nautic, biològic) are regular with the preservation of stem final /k/ through the spelling change c > -qu- in front of -e-, -i-.

cases historiques /ɪs.'to̯.ri.kəs/. Some dialects prefer the conserved spelling of -c- with a change in pronunciation: historices /-səs/.

The adjective like tardif (tardíu, tardí, masc. late, late-ish) has an elision or vocalisation of the stem- final consonant (v, /w/= u, f).

Feminine form (corresponding to group 1 nouns)

The form tardíu /tɐr.diw/ is also used in front of a vowel: tardíû͜ ͜  /v ͜   / - a liaison is made with the next word. The oblique singular articulized feminine form is contracted:

theoretical: tardiva-a /ʋɑ:a̯/*→ tardíua /tɐr.'di̯.w:ɐ/

A supplemental popular contracted form for the oblique plural is: tardús /tɐr.'dus/.

Some similar adjective patterns do not support all presented forms because of the lack of clarity:

natíu (natif), adj., native - all of the masculine/neuter forms follow the same pattern - except for tardús > natsús /nɐt.'su̯s/ ~ /nɐ̯'͡ts:u̯s/- rarely used.

The feminine form has some differences in the singular

Also recognised forms, in many regional speeches: nativa, natíga, natives, nativos (natigues, natiguos).

The adjectives with an original morpheme -er- /ər/ have some changes:

The feminine form is regular (puitre/puitra). The masculine original morpheme -er- /ər/ is cut-off in the simple masculine form with zero ending (puit-Ø- Ø), and the derived form with a palatal:

putger-Ø /'pu̯.dʒə(r)/ is rarely used.

Some pronouns retain the original -er, like: aut, uter - other.

In certain forms (with disyllabic or nasal grammatical ending, or -er) the initial diphtong au- becomes a stressed, short u- /u̯/. The variant form with initial ât- /ə̯t/ can be used in all forms except the monosyllabic forms (aut(s)) and the nasal form (utrų) /ut.rɔ̃/.

This is a variant with initial stressed /wi̯/ or /i̯/. It is replaceable with forms of âter and monosyllabic nominative (definite/indefinite) aut. The monosyllabic uit is used only with an indefinite pronoun or article: auquis /âtxis uit /wi̯t/- somebody else, un uit - another (m.).

§5.4.2. Group II (morphology of neuter nouns)

The neuter nouns of group II generally exhibit the theme vowel also in the nominative singular (-u) (like the oblique, with the definite article lu). Compare adjectives: tard (m. nominative) and tardu (neuter nominative). The DO - accusative form is identical to the subject form: (lu) tardu.

By speakers, originally neuter nouns are frequently switched to a masculine pattern, but often retaining the characteristic definite article lu:

example:

fatu, destiny, fate, n. (II)

fet, fact, n. (II)

This example has a hidden (elided) stem final consonant -n- (destin-), visible only in the optional contracted oblique plural destins. The elided consonant produces a slight nasalisation of the tonic vowel -i-: destí(u) /dəs.'tĩ(w)/

This example has an elided syllabic soft -ti-/tj/. The form palauiu (obl. pl.) is a cross with the 3rd group pattern (by influence of the 4th group -uiu ending and the basic form palau.

By influence of modern languages, some forms do a cross between the 2nd and 3rd group patterns, like:

palau or palace, n. (II/III), palace

templu or temple, n. (II/III), temple

Some of these nouns may have a historic type plural (nom./acc.)in -a, mainly -ua or -ea (like palaua, templea), denoting usually general or mass nouns, body parts, or undefined countable quantities.

ou, n. (II) an egg (from Latin: ovum)

Due to the short monosyllabic nature of the stem, the articulized plural oblique contains the full attached article: oulis /'ɔ̯w.lis/.

§5.4.3. Group III (nouns and adjectives)

Group III nouns are very diverse with a few morphological subgroups (of all three genders). Some subgroups may have a particular infix (stressed or unstressed), i.e. the structure:

stem + [infix] + ending

The infix does not appear in the nominative singular (indefinite form). Mainly nouns have a zero ending (-Ø) when no infix is employed, but some feminine nouns do get a prosthetic nominative ending -e without the infix.

Many nouns have

- stem final consonant changes of elisions before an ending

- stem core vowel changes and diphthongisation.

Subgroup 1. Regular nouns (without infix)

This subgroup encompasses all genders:

example: mar /ma:r/, neuter noun, III - sea

cllau /kʎaw/ ~ /kjaw/ - also: clâf /kləf/ - key The nouns nau /naw/ (ship, boat) and au /aw/ - bird have the same pattern as cllau (oblique sg. nave, ave). The optional definite nom. forms are: nâf / nef (ship), and oaf/oâf/uef (bird).

nui(t) /nuj(t)/, definite - nuít (nit) /n(w)it/ - night

vui /vuj/, voi(x)  - voice This noun has the typical -oa- diphthong appearance (like scoala), which makes the path of the similar noun nui - night a little irregular.

The articulized form (obl. pl.) voueis is also spelt vôeis /'ʋo.wejs/ ~ /'ʋo.wɐjs/.

Some speakers use this same pattern for nui (nui -vui), except that there are no equivalents with -z- (like vozes).

The noun paî (pai) /paj/, /pe:/ ~ /pɛ:/ is similar to vui, but the central stem vowel /a/ does not get changed.

The forms with -z- (pazes, pazis) are also possible.

Rhotacism - example: flos, definite flor/fllur - flower

This noun has a regular pattern based on the definite root flor and the regular appearance of the diphthong -oa-. The variant fllur is regional and regular, with no diphthong in inflection.

Subgroup 2. Masculine nouns stems in -ú

These nouns represent etymological group with the morpheme -or (like doctor, actor). They have no infix.

The forms in -aur are quite regional, but widespread:

valaur /ʋɐ.la̯w(ɾ)/~ /ʋɐ.lɔ:(ɾ)/

Nouns like timú, eimú, âitú, doitú (duitú) follow the same pattern. Nouns in -ît- need an additional semivowel -û- /w/ in definite forms like:

âitoà    or         âitûaur             - the actor

doitoà            or         doitûaur           - the doctor

The final -r is usually omitted in speech.

Some speakers read the -r form like /əj.'twɔ:(ɾ)/ (merging -au- into /ɔ:/), and some read /əj.'twɑ:(ɾ)/.

Subgroup 3. Feminine nouns stems in -s/-t

These feminine nouns have the indefinite nominative singular in -s (une pars), and the definite form in -t (la part). Otherwise, they are regular. Nouns like fans (child), gens (people), dens (tooth) have the same pattern.

Subgroup 4. Nouns with infix (-at-, -et-, -n-, -(u)r-)

Nouns that receive a stressed infix in an inflected form have the main stress on the infix vowel (-a- or -e- in -at-, -et-).

ciut(e) /'sju.t(ə)/ - city - oblique: ciutade /sju.'ta.ð(ə)/

The nominative singular form does not take the infix in the indefinite form, and it usually has the form: stem + ending (zero-ending, -e for some feminine nouns, -u for some neuter nouns).

Unstressed infixes can lose the vowel value (în, ân, /(ə)n/, -er /(ə)r/, -ur- /(u̯)r/)

Observe the emergence of an infix: The neuter nouns can have the nominative definite form with a "prosthetic" ending -u (genu(l), coarpu(l)), thus mimicking other noun groups (II and IV).

The infix -ur- can be pronounced in full in an unstressed syllable, but that would reverse any previous diphthong to a monophtong:

lu corp, oblique: coarpre > corpure, also variant: curpure. This happens more often in the plural: corpures; corpres (bodies).

Compare the plural usage of infixes: The corresponding general oblique pl. ending is -is: ciutezis, perezis, homnis, genris (generis), corpris/corpuris.

In plural, all stem diphthongs are reversed to monophthongs (coarpre - corpres, curpres).

The noun pâret - peretes (perezes) has the same type of vowel change as in sârf - servos (group II).

With the alternative -iu ending, some changes occur with the stressed infix, and -a- type vowel is favoured again.

The form ciutaiiu came from regular ciutadiu /ðju/ > ciutaď(i)u /͡jʝu/.

Some speakers have alternative forms based on this development:

ciutaď /dj/, vocalised ciutàu /sju.'ta̯w/, and simplified ciutaîu /sju.'ta.ju/.

These forms also arose by influence of neuter nouns in -al (like animal) - compare similar oblique forms: animau (sg.), animaiiu, animaîu (pl., see §5.4.)

Now the full pattern for a few nouns The articulized oblique form in singular, ciutaiia /͡jʝʌ/*, arose from regular ciutade-a.

In this sense, the forms ciutaîa, ciutá and ciutáa are also found in speech.

In plural, a popular oblique form omits the infix: ciutezeis (standard) > ciutéis (omitted infix or ending contracted with tonic é) > ciutés (contraction).

In popular speech, an infix-less plural les ciutes (nom./acc.) /'sju.təs/completely omits the infix (ciut- + -es), while the form ciutés is considered oblique definite: de ciutés - about the cities (also d'els ciutés - redundant form).

Subgroup 5. Feminine gender nouns ending in -tiu

This is a well defined noun subgroup, with a consonantal infix -n- (in the form of -tiun-) in non-subject (non-nominative) singular forms, and all plural forms. The definite nominative yet includes the "infix".

The nouns in the nominative singular usually include a graphic accent: natiú /nɐt.'ju/ ~  /nɐ.͡ts.'ju/ - nation

The form naço(n) /nɐ.'so:(n)/ is reserved only for the singular nominative and accusative (-n) with no further grammatical ending (except for "original" -n in the accusative).

There are many similar nouns like visiú, passiú, emotiú, professiú etc. Only the nouns in -tiu can have it replaced with -ço-, other examples don't have this innovation (visiun, visiune). The indefinite form graphic accent separates them from similar looking adjectives like: natif, passif, emotif (natíu, passíu, emotíu).

Subgroup 6. Feminine gender nouns ending in -tue

These nouns originally come from Latin nouns ending in -tudo (oblique -tudin-). An example is:

furtitúe (furtitut), strenght

This group de facto uses the unstressed type infix -în-, which strengthens to "nn" /n:/. An alternative oblique sg. form is furtituîne /fur.ti.'tu̯j.nə/ - versus furtitunne /fur.ti.'tu̯.n:ə/. The stem furtituîn- can replace furtitunn- in all forms except furtitunneis, where a diphthong immediately follows the -nn-.

Subgroup 7. ''Nouns that have the definite nominative sg. in -a''

This group contains feminine nouns like crise (indefinite) and neuter nouns like problem(e) (indefinite) where the definite nominative sg. forms end in -a (crisa, problema). This doesn't affect the overall third group pattern:

feminine gender

The definite nominative form without article is crisa /'kri:.zɐ/, while the articulized form is: la crise /'kri:.zə/. The oblique indefinite form is the regular

(una) crise,

while the definite form with postpositioned article -a is considered to be crisa (contracted from regular crisea (crise-a). Definiteness is also semantical, so an article-less oblique form crise can be considered definite (the usage of clitic particles depends on the minimum required number of coordinative sentence elements).

neuter gender

A possibility is to add the postposition article -lu with a 2nd group oblique support-ending -u(-lu) for the definite form.

Other nouns following this rule: feminine gender: dose, oase, neuter gender: teme, system(e), poem(e).

Adjectives - group B (similar to group III nouns)

For adjectives of group B, all gender forms of the same adjective take the same inflection pattern (like group III nouns) with these exceptions:

(1) the nominative singular definite form of the feminine adjective takes the ending -e (prosthetic -e, lost before a vowel in the next word)

(2) the nominative singular of a neuter adjective always has the ending -e (stem + -e)

(3) there are no infixes in group B adjectives.

Phenomenons (sound changes) like in group III nouns may occur:

- stem final consonant vocalisation: -l /l/ ~ /ɫ/to -û /w/, very common like in: fáciu - fácil

- other changes (more rarely).

The nominative (subject case) example: fàciu/fàcil (easy, adjective) /'fa̯.siw/ /l/ ~ /ɫ/

The inflection is the same as for nouns of corresponding genders. The singular ending -e in the oblique form and the nominative neuter form is not removed in front of a vowel initial word.

A subgroup of these adjectives has the stem final morpheme -ul (from Latin -bil-):

A subgroup of these adjectives has the stem final morpheme -al (from Latin -al-):

natiunau / natiunal(e) - "national".

An inflection table example: faciu - adj. easy

§5.5. Phrase (noun-adjective) concordance and definiteness

Definiteness is a semantic category, sometimes expressed by using definite and indefinite articles. In a sentence, articles may be or not be used based on the minimum required number of coordinative particles added to the basic SVO structure.

Nominative singular (subject):

une case - la casa        a/the house

un mur - el mur           a/the wall

In the subject form (nominative singular), the indefinite and definite base forms of nouns may differ (case/casa). If the noun is used with the definite article, usually the basic ('indefinite type') nominative form can be used, while the article-less definite form differs:

indefinite form:                       une ciute /un rei          /rej/ (always article-marked)

definite form:                          la ciute - ciutet                          (articulized - non-articulized)

                                               el rei - reig (reii) /re̯dʒ/

The definite noun form ends in -a (nominative singular) for 1st group nouns (like casa) is used in this definite form no matter if the definite article is used or not:

indefinite form:                       une case           (always article-marked)

definite form:                          la casa - casa    (articulized - non-articulized)

The same rule applies to three more subsets of nouns:

(1) feminine nouns of the 3rd group like pars/part (subgroup 3): une pars / la part

(2) neuter nouns of the 3rd group with the definite form in -a (subgroup 7): unu probleme /lu problema

(3) other nouns outside groups 1 and 3 with definite form in -a: un dí - el día (group V)

The noun and the adjective are concordant in case/number/gender. A definite or indefinite article is repeated only once per phrase:

d' unu reiie maînu - de reiieleu maînu de reiie  'l-maînu - about a great king

d' una reina puitra - de reina a-puitra - about a beautiful queen

The postpositioned article is very rarely attached to an adjective (only if it fully replaces the noun it is attributed to). If placed between the noun and the adjective, the postposited article -ua becomes an adjective proclitic a(-), and the masculine -leu/-lu becomes adjective proclitical el(-), 'l(-). Hyphenation to the adjective is optional.

§5.5.1. Proper names and definiteness

Proper names are considered definite and are used without the definite article (except for some complex geografical terms).

City names that conform with the pattern of 1st group nouns in -a have a peculiarity: the -e form (Barcelone, Vienne) is reserved as the nominative, while the -a form represents the oblique:

în Barcelona, în Vienna - in Barcelona, in Vienna.

The accusative case (direct object function) is represented by nasal ending -ą, since the article in not used.

The nouns that conform with the 3rd group pattern may have a prosthetic -e in the nominative (like ciute): example: Londre /'lõn.drə/or Londře /'lõnt.ɾjə/ - nominative/oblique, accusative: Londrę.

The city of Paris has the stem Pari- (with -s- elision): Paris (nominative)/Paríe (obl.) - Parię. (acc.)

The city of Berlin conforms with the 2nd group pattern, but with final -n elision: Berlin (Berlí)/Berlíu / Berlių. Sometimes proper names of the second group have a neuter pattern to avoid the nasal ending: nom. Berlí acc./oblique Berlíu.

The same happens with people's names. Names like Elena, Anna, keep the original -a for the nominative and oblique. Masculine names like Martin (Martín) do not lose the final -n (oblique Martinu, and the final nasal -ų (and -ę) is also frequently avoided in masculine names by artificially mixing-in the neuter pattern: nom./acc. Martin, obl. Martinu /mɐr.'ti:.nu/.

Nasal phonemes -ą and -ę are normally used for feminine names in the accusative: Eleną, Hildę.

Examples of names:

Anna, Elena, Helene - 1st group

Martin, Marc, Marcos, Bruno, Toni, Antonio, René - 2nd group

Hilde (f.), Luca (m.), Zoe (f.), Hélène* (f.) - 3rd group

unchanged (do not inflect*): Carmen (f), Hildegard (f) etc.

The possessive 's (or -s) may be added to uninflected names: Carmen' s /Carmens etc.

Since the conlang has no native names, the names are adapted based on native pronunciation and spelling and fitted into a pattern of groups I-III.

In male names like Bruno, Toni the vowel (-o, -i) is kept in inflected forms (oblique Brunou, Toniu), because of clarity, but not the ending -o from the name Antonio (oblique: Antoniu).

The -s from names like Marcos is always elided in oblique forms: Marcou or Marcu (like Marc), depending on inteligibility inside a group.

Any stem final stressed vowel (like in René) is always kept: oblique Renéu.

In group III, masculine names always keep the original form for the direct object: nom./acc. Luca, oblique: Luque / Lucque; not being so in feminine names: nom./obl. Hilde, acc. Hildę.

The name Helena/Helene and Hélène /e.'lɛn/are sorted into groups 1 and 3 based on phonetics (acc. Heleną and Hélènę).

The level of inflection of personal names depends on consensus and inteligibility. For English language names, the adaptation is based on phonetics: George (m.) /dʒɔː(ɹ)dʒ/ will keep the final -e: oblique 2nd group: Georgeu /dʒɔː(ɹ)dʒu/, while the female name Elise /ɛliːs/ will be fitted into the third group (just like French Élise).

The German variants Elise, Helene /-ə/ may be sorted into the 1st group based on whether the inflections in -a (Elisa, Helena) were acceptable for the speakers.

Male names would always be fitted to group 2 pattern, unless they ended in -a (Luca, group 3).

§5.6. Uses of the genitive/dative - simplified

Many conlang users use the genitive case (possession and partition function) and the dative case (indirect object) in a simplified manner compared to the official standard.

The dative case is used the same as the general oblique case mostly with prepositions: a (generic) and tâl /təl/ ~ /təɫ/(more specific), both meaning: to, towards.

The genitive (of ...) is expressed by using the specific inflected genitive prepositional marker:

For the singular indefinite genitive, the noun is used in the basic (nominative) form,: case, mur (the feminine marker is always al):

al case, al mur

For the 3rd and 4th groups the stem + -s may be used:

al ciutats / al ciutat (III)

al fruits / al fruitu (IV)

al câmps / al campu (IV)

The stressed infix of 3rd group nouns is visible as -at- /a̯t/.

For the indefinite plural, the genitival form of the noun is identical to the nominative/accusative:

ale cases, al muros, ale ciutezes, al fruituos, al câmpos.

For the definite singular, the nouns are used in the oblique case, combining the preposition de + marker al in front of the noun (with no postposited article).

For the definite plural, the nouns are used in the nominative/accusative case, combining the preposition de + marker al in front of the noun (with no postposited article).

da casa / dale cases

da ciutade / dale ciutezes

dal fruitu / dal fruituos (fruisos)

VERBS TOPICS

'''§6. VERB FORMS  - INTRODUCTION. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE'''

Verbal morphology of the conlang is very rich. Verbal roots express an action or state. Verb stems can refer to present or past (example: cant- sing-stem present/past), with them being identical for most of the regular verbs.

A stem can also express aspect (aspect not grammatically expressed means that the form may be used for either aspect).

The category of aspect is not fully expressed in all forms.

The table shows some categories of verbs that are covered partially (aspect, frequency)  or fully by verbs forms. The number of simple tenses is 3-6 (imperfect past, perfect past and present) based on regional usage plus at least 1-2 compound tenses (past and future). A simple future tense is in fact a fused compound form (with an attached auxilliary verb).

Personal inflection refers to three persons (1st/2nd/3rd) in singular and plural (grammatical number), see §5.3. Infinitive forms are not inflected for person nor number.

Impersonal verbs are used only in the 3rd person singular form (it is raining). Imperative forms are only available for the 2nd person (sg. and pl.) as simple forms.

Reflexive verbs use a pro-clitic accusative personal pronoun in inflection (reflexive infinitive uses the 3rd person pronoun se) - the pronoun becomes an enclitic for the imperative.

Transitiveness is a semantic category - a transitive verb receives a direct object in the accusative (sometimes introduced by the preposition a, see §5.1.), an intransitive verb receives a dative case object.

Verbal nominal forms are frequently used to construct compound verbal stuctures (together with auxilliary verbs).

These categories can be used as nominals with limited inflection. The nominal infinitive is considered a neuter gender form (for the nominative/accusative, without plural), while the gerund /supine count as additional (oblique) case forms of the nominal infinitive.

The gerundive can be used as a fully inflected adjective (group A) with a present/future aspect, while the past participle is used as an adjective of a perfect aspect (past completed action) - consider the names Amanda - ' (designated) to be loved' , and Amada - '(been) loved '.

All of these verbal nominals are used in compound verbal forms (infinitive + inflected verb, others with an auxiliary verb).

VOICE - Active/passive - the passive voice is typically expressed as a compound verb form (with the auxiliary verb to be).

§6.1. Present infinitive and thematic vowels

Verbs are classified into four groups based on possible thematic vowels: -a- (group I), -e- (groups II, III) and -i- (group IV).

The basic theme vowels are evident in the present infinitive and present indicative forms.

Other moods are typically based on changing and switching the basic theme vowels.

Regular and irregular verbs are spread accross all four groups. The auxilliary (irregular) verbs to be and to have are used in compound tenses but also as main verbs with full meaning (to be, to have/to possess).

Short infinitives and the present tense 3rd person

Short (present) infinitives are used in the meaning of verbs or in compound verb forms (long infinitives are used as neuter gender nouns).

A regular present infinitive ends in the stressed thematic vowel of the corresponding group:

present stem + stressed theme vowel:

cantà   /kɐn.'ta/ - to sing    (group I)

monè   /mo.'ne/ - to warn   (group II)

currè    /ku̯.'r:e/ - to run      (group III)

finí       /fi.'ni/ - to finish      (group IV)

The infinitive vowel is optionally long, even though it is spelt with grave accent (à, è). In front of a vowel in the following word (except for the preposition a), the infinitives are spelt with final -r and with the graphic accents removed: cantar, moner, currer, finir /kɐn.'ta(ɾ)/. However, many speaker's still don't pronounce the final -r.

The present indicative tense in the 3rd person sg. ends in the unstressed thematic vowel of the corresponding group (stem + theme vowel), thus having a similar form with different stress:

il canta            /'kan.ta/ ~ /-ɐ/                  - he is singing (he sings)

il mone            /'mo.nə/                             - he is warning (he warns)

il curre             /'ku̯.r:ə/                                 -he is running   (he runs)

il fini                /'fi.ni/                                     - he is finishing (he finishes)

Groups II and III have minimum differences (as you will see in later chapters).

Long infinitives of regular verbs are constructed by ending the unstressed syllable -re /rə/ to short infinitives, and removing graphic accents: cantare /kɐn.'ta.rə/. They are used as nominative/accusative neuter gender nouns: lu cantare - the singing (subject/direct object).

The groups II and III have a difference in pronunciation:

monere /mo.'ne:rə/ vs. currere /'ku̯.r:ə.rə/, but this rule is not followed by all speakers.

Verbs can have irregular infinitives in -ua or -ea, regardless of the grouping

1st group          daua    /'da̯.wa/, /'da̯.wɐ/, stea     /stja/, /ste̯a/

2nd group          tinea    /'tin.ja/, /-ɐ/, veua    /'ʋe.wa/, /-ɐ/

3rd group          faua     /'fa.wa/, /-ɐ/, nea      /nja/, /ne̯a/, creua   /'kre.wa/, /-ɐ/

4th group          ita        /'i.ta/, /-ɐ/, itta /'i.ðɐ/

In front of a vowel in the following word (except for the preposition a), the infinitives get more regular form with group typical endings -ar, -er or -ir:

dar, stǎr/stiar, tiner, veér/veŷer, creér/creŷer, far, ir etc.

The final -a frequently becomes a preposition in proper usage: a dau, a veu, a tine (see §.)

§6.2. The present indicative tense

GROUP:         I

The regular pattern for the present indicative of 1st group verbs (thematic -a) is as follows: The 1st person -u is optional (cantu) and required if consonant stem final clusters emerge, including double -rr (except -nt, -nd, and clusters with final -l): ia cant, ia narru, ia parl, ia afl(u).

The ending's final consonants -t, -s are written in front of a vowel-initial word (except the preposition a), but they are mostly not pronounced:

il narrat histořes /'nar:a˺/ - he tells stories.

In third person pronoun-verb inversions, the final -t is pronounced before a vowel:

Cantat-il(?)      /'kan:tɐt ͜  il/ The hyphenation is typical for a question form.

cantat il cantiunes - (il) canta cantiunes - he sings songs (declarative form).

The second person sg. (tí) in some regions has the ending -i, and in some regions only -s is popular.

tí canti / tí cantes / ti cants - you sing / you are singing.

In certain regions, the form in -au(t) has the pronunciation /ɔ/: cantau /'ka̯n.ˌtɔ:/, some have the regional form canton /'ka̯n.ˌtɔ̯n/.

Summary: the 1st group present indicative endings are: -(u), -es, -a, -aime, -aite, -au (pronounced: (u), əs, -ʌ, -'ɛm, -'ɛt, -ʌw).

GROUP:         II

The regular pattern for the present indicative of 2nd group verbs (thematic -é /e/) is as follows: The first person ending is consonantal: either -c /k/ ~ /ɡ/, -g, -s or -Ø (zero ending) - applicable to verb groups II-IV.

Examples: also possible ia mon /mɔn/ ~ /mun/ - I warn.

manè (II) - to remain, to stay - ia mans/ ia man (I am staying). A possible 1st person singular form

stem + -esc /'e̯sk/ is possible is groups II-IV and rarely in group I.

stem + -isc /'i̯sk/ is possible is group IV.

Examples:

ardè (II) - to burn - ia ardesc, ia ard, ia ars (evolution: ard-+-s > ars)

finí (IV) - to finish - ia finisc.

Summary: the 2nd  group present indicative endings are:  -/(-c)/(-s), -es, -e, -aime, -aite, -eu (pronounced: (-k), -əs, -ə, -'ɛm, -'ɛt, -əw).

GROUP:         III

The regular pattern for the present indicative of 3rd group verbs (thematic -e /ə/) is as follows: The third person plural ending is either -Ø or -u, in free variation (if the stem ends in a consonant).

In front of a vowel, the 3rd person plural -ut is not added, except in pronoun verb inversions and questions:

curret-il (?), currut-ei (?)

For vowel stems, like in the example: fluè (3) to flow (stem flu-), the first person singular ending is -c /k/, and the 3rd person pl. ending is -iiu /͡jʝu/:

For stems ending in vowel + ç /s/ like ducè - to lead, the first person singular is the bare stem ending in -c /k/, and for the third person plural, elide the stem final -c and add the ending -iiu: For stems ending in a consonant + ç /s/, like vincè - to win, the first person singular is the bare stem ending in (a modified grapheme) -ç /s/, and the third person plural form is the unmodified bare stem (with final sound -c /k/):

ia vinç, ti vinces, il vince, ni vinçaime, vi vinçaite, ei vinc (popular: ei vin).

For stems ending in another consonant cluster, like vendè - to sell, the first person singular is the bare stem (vend), and the third person plural has an additional -u (vendu) if not used with a clarifying personal pronoun (ei vend).

ia vend, ti vendes, il vende, ni vendaime, vi vendaite, ei vend (vendu).

Summary: the 3rd group present indicative endings are: -(c)/(-s), -es, -e, -aime, -aite, -(u) (pronounced: (k), əs, -ə, -'ɛm, -'ɛt, -(u)).

GROUP:         IV

The regular pattern for the present indicative of 4th group verbs (thematic -i) is as follows: For this verb, a stem bare 1st person sg. form is possible: ia fin.

For groups II-IV, a regional form of the 2nd person sg. in -i is possible: tí moni, tí curri, tí fini, but in the 4th group it comes with a change for the 3rd person singular:

ia finisc, tí fini, il fine /'fi.nə/, etc.

Summary: the 4th group present indicative endings are: -(c)/(-s), -is, -i, -iaime, -iaite, -iu (pronounced: (k), -is, -i, -'jɛm, -'jɛt, -ju).

The negative form of the verbs is obtained by including the particle nu(n) in front of the indicative verb:

[ia] nu cant - I don't sing, I am not singing.

[il] nun estima - he doesn't appreciate /ˌnun ͜  əs.'ti.mɐ/.

§6.3. Certain irregularities in regular verbs

As in nominal words, verb forms can exhibit certain stem changes like:

(1) stem vowel diphthongization - pensà (I) - tí pěnses /penses (to think)

(2) stem final consonant elision or change

- verb: saluà (I)- ia salut - to greet; cambí (IV) - ia camf, tí cambis - to change

(3) stem consonant vocalisation (b, v, l > -u-): theor. vulutà > vultà > voutà (I) (to turn, come back)

Verbal stem diphthongs

These are rarely used in verbal inflection, and they are quite optional. The most frequent change is e /ɛ/→ ie /je/. The change occurs on a stressed stem with a syllabic (non-diphthongal) ending: (pensà - to think) ia pěnsu /'pjen.su/ or ia pens /pɛ̯ŋs/.

In groups II-IV the first person ending is mostly non-syllabic (excluding -esc/-isc).

Example: perdè - ia perd, tí pěrdes, il pěrde, ni perdaime, vi perdaite, ei perd (pěrdu).

The transformation of stem original vowel -o- frequently yields -u- in stressed and unstressed stem forms, but not in the first person (ia): durmí/dormí (to sleep): ia dorm, ti durmis/dormis, il durmi/dormi, ni durmiaime, vi durmiaite, ei durmiu/dormiu.

The preservation of -o- depends on regional preferences (but ia dorm is constant).

The employment of -esc/-isc

This ending is usually only used for the 1st person sg.:

- ardè (II - to burn) - ia ardesc (ia ars), tí ardes, il arde, ni ardaime, vi ardaite, ei ardeu.

- placè (II - to please) - ia plasc (plac), ti places, il place, ni plaçaime, vi plaçaite, ei placeu.

- bastí (IV - to build) - ia bastisc (basť), ti bastis, il basti, ni bastiaime, vi bastiaite, ei bastiu.

Sometimes this addition can make a difference in meaning or aspect:

(în)fluè - to flow (in), to influence - ia fluc / ia (în)fluesc, ti flues/fluies, il flue/fluie, ni fluaime/fluiaime, vi fluaite/fluiaite, ei flussu/fluiiu.

The two variants represent perfective (fluc/fluic, flues, flussu) and imperfective  (fluc/fluic, fluies, fluiiu) aspects.

The verb to influence is typically derived as: înfluè / ia înfluiesc, tí înfluies, il înfluie, ... ei înfluiiu; with a dual aspect.

Verbal aspect is not fully differentiated in all verbs (verbs with only one form per person are considered to have a dual or universal aspect).

The morphemic part -eix- /eʃ/ or -aix- /a̯ʃ/, -ix- /i̯ʃ/ is considered to have the same origin, as -esc, -(a)sc, -isc and appears in all persons of some verbs, and also in front of vocalic endings:

câ ia înflueixi, finixi -that I influence, that I finish (subjunctive present).

Some regular verbs like: creixè (III) - to grow (in size), have this morpheme with a slight irregularity:

ia creix, ti creixes, il creixe, ... ei creissu /crèssu - the sound of -x- /ʃ/ in front of -u turns to -ss- /s:/.

Sound changes and consonant elisions

In stem only first person sg. present forms, the final consonant may suffer voicing or a change

b /b/, v /ʋ/    →                   f /f/

l /l/ ~ /ɫ/        →                    û /w/

m, n, d           →                    û /w/*

d                      →                    t*

s                       →                    z

* These changes tend to happen in irregular verbs: tinea (stem tin-): ia tiu (I hold), cedè - ia cet (I allow), etc.

Examples:

cambí /kɐm.'bi/- to change (IV): ia camf, ti cambis, ei cambiu.

viua /'ʋi̯.wɐ/ - to live (III), stem viv-*: ia vif, ti vies /vius, il vie, ni viiaime, vi viiaite, ei viiu.

scriè /skri̯.'e/ - to write (III), stem scrib̌ /β/ ~ /w/ ~ scri(v)-: ia scric / scrif, ti scries, il scrie, ni scriaime, ..., ei scriu.

The stem for vi(ua) comes from Latin vivĕre - to live, the forms are influenced also by: vivīre.

In this irregular verb we see the simple principles of:

-v- to -f- (bare stem): ia vif (> viv)

-v- elision is systematic: il vie (> vive), ni viiaime (theor. viviaime), ei viiu (theor. viviu)

In plural forms, a de facto switch to a 4th group pattern is seen, influenced by -v- elision and the form vivire.

-v- vocalisation is seen in the alternative form: tí vies/vius (< viv(e)s  > vifs > vius).

In the example of regular (e)scriè - to write, we see a near complete elision of stem final -v- (-b-), seen only in the bare stem form of the first person: ia scrif, or also elided in ia scric (generic ending /k/ for vowel-final stems).

Some more examples:

saluà (earlier salutà) - to greet: ia salut, tí salúes, il salúa, ni saluaime, vi saluaite, ei salúau.

sauvà (from salvare) - to save: ia sauf, ti sauves, il sauva, ... ei sauvau.

jucà: ia joc/juec, ti juques/júes, il juca/júa, ni juquaime/juaime, vi juquaite/jucaite, ei jucau/júau.

In the last example, a rare instance of optional -c- /k/ elision is shown, influenced by French (jouer).

§7. Verbs to be and to have in the present indicative tense

The present conjugation of the verb "to be" (present infinitive: éssua) is as follows The right hand side column shows stressed forms that can be used without subject (independent forms), in all types of sentences.

The left hand side column shows unstressed (enclitic) forms (proclitic for questions) that are used with overt sentence subject or a personal pronoun.

The majority of stressed and unstressed forms are the same or very similar.

The -i type conjugation for the 2nd person sg. (tí) uses the unstressed form si /si̯/ with the stressed equivalent either:

essi /'e.si̯/, essî/esse /'e.sə/ or the common és /e:s/ - for "you are".

The negative form is obtained by adding the initial sound /ɲ/ (written ni-) to the stressed afirmative forms. The negative verb form is always stressed.

The infinitive form in front of a vowel is: ésser /'e̯.s:ə(ɾ)/: ésser atif - to be active. The verbal noun is: éstre /'e̯s.trə/.

The present conjugation of the verb "to have" is as follows:

The left hand side column shows full stressed verb forms used as a main verb (to have). The third person plural used with an overt subject can be:

ei aveu /ei au.

The right hand side column shows unstressed (enclitic) forms of the auxiliary verb "to have", used in compound tenses.

The -i type conjugation for the 2nd person sg. (tí) uses the form ài /ai̯/ as the main verb, and also the auxilliary form, written aî (sometimes reduced to /ɐj/).

For negatives, the initial sound /ɲ/ (written ň-, ni-, e.g. niám, ňam) is added to the full verb forms, but the sound /nj/, written as hyphenated initial ni-, to the auxilliary forms (e.g. ni-am).

The infinitive form in front of a vowel is: auver /'aw.ʋe(ɾ)/: auver animales - to have animals. The verbal noun is: aure /'aw.rə/ - possession(s).

§8. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES WITH THE DIRECT OBJECT (ACC.)

Using articles. The obligatory use of articles has to do with the minimum required number of coordinate elements in a simple sentence (beside the main parts S-V-O)

La casa ie mâina. The house is large.

CESTA filla iest hauta. This girl is tall. /'ses.ta/

Cel urs ie pitit. That bear is small. /sel/

Cea filla canta. That girl is singing. /sja/

El fí dormi (durmi). The boy is sleeping.

Un animau veni. An animal is coming.

Am casą. I have a house/a home. /'kazɑ̃/

For the direct object in singular, if an article is used, than the nasal ending is absent (we use only the oblique stem of the noun, with no ending except for the majority of nouns in group I.

For group I nouns, if an article or a determiner in the accusative is used, the singular noun receives the corresponding non nasal -a /a/ ~ /ɐ/.

Nouns with stems ending in a nasal consonant (m, n) can follow the ending deletion rule, as well as disyllabic and polysyllabic stem nouns with stems in -r.

Querc o casa. /o.'ka.zɐ/        I am looking for the house.

Bastiu lu mur. /lu.'mur/         They are building the wall.

Il a(t) un' ort. /un.'ort/          He has a garden

Estim o ciutet. /o.sju.'te̯t/      I love/appreciate the city.

Obserf o luana. /o.'lwa.nɐ/    I lam looking at the moon.

Ea eima l'homn. /lɔmn/         She loves the man.

Visitu o ciutat mereu în vere/hiernu. I always visit the city in summer/winter.

Querc lu palau în ciutade větlla. /sju.'ta.ðə/ /'ʋ.je̯.ʎ:a/ I like the palace in the old town.

Visitu (a) Barceloną âcat(ul ') annu. /əˌka̯tul.'a̯.n:u/   I visit Barcelona every year.

If the order V-DO changes to DO-V, a pronominal reiteration of the direct object with a verbal pro-clitic is necessary. The reversal creates additional emphasis to the direct object

O casa la querc. The house, I am looking for it.

Lu mur el-bastiu. /əl.'ba̯s.tju/            The wall, they're building it.

Lu templu  'l-querc /lu.'tẽmplul/         The temple, I am looking for it.

When the same clitic element (article, pronoun) is repeated in sequence, the element lu (masculine and neuter) changes to el- or 'l-.

Un'ort el-a(t) [il]. A garden [he] has.

The used verbs were:

quercà (1), bastí (4), estimà (1), observà (1), eimà (1) /e(j).'ma:/ ~ /ə(j).'ma:/, visità (1).

The oblique general case is used for circumstantial information that doesn't belong to the main S-V-O parts. Examples are:

în vere/hiernu (in summer/winter) /jer.nu/

în ciutade větlla (in the old town)

âcatul ' annu (every year)

cun Anna (with Anna)

a nave (by ship), a carru (by car) (means of transport)

causa ...(l') homne (because of the man)

de gente/personis (about people)

The definite articles are usually placed after the noun to leave the prepositions intact.

Feminine singular articles become: -a (after -e-) or -ua (after -a-): navea (= la nave), casaua (la casa).

Masculine singular articles become: -lu (after -u-) or -leu (after -e-): annulu (= l' annu), homneleu (= l'homne)

The appended articles are inspired by oblique plural pronouns: ea (ela, la) - her, eu (elu) - him.

As explained earlier, the definite plural forms get the endings -eis (f.), -iis (m.): naveis (= lis naviu), homniis (lis homniu).

causa homneleu âcest(ui) - because of this man /'ɔ.mnə.lew/ /͜  ə.'se̯st(wi)/

causa gienaua âcesta - because of this woman /'ʒe.na.w:͜  ɐ/ /'se̯stɐ/

în palaulu - in the palace

Causa, here, is a petrified oblique form of the noun cause /'kaw.zə/, used as a preposition (because). For definite terms, it is complemented by oblique general case, and the definite article is also used in from of the noun

causa ...l' homne (lis homniu, homnis)

causa ...la giena (lis gienis)      

Some terms don't use articles and/or prepositions

seasons: în hiernu, în vere

weekdays: llundie, mardie (on Mondays, ... etc.) -singular is used with the oblique inflection of the word dí (día).

means of transportation: use only the preposition or postposition particle -a, or only the definite article in front of the noun

nave(-)a/ a nave, la nave, a naviu, naviu-a/naviua  (plural postposition), els naviu

carru(-)a - a carru, lu carru, a carruiu/carris, caruiu-a /carruia (plural postposition), lis carruiu/carris

§ 8.1. Adjectives and possessives

The adjectives have all the corresponding grammatical forms just like nouns of groups I-III. There are no adjective forms corresponding to groups IV and V of nouns.

The gender distribution is the same as for nouns

The oblique (non-subject) forms exhibit thematic vowels corresponding to three groups:

-a- group I, feminine

-e- group III (all genders)

-u- groups II (masculine and neutral)

Group A: Matching adjectives are found in two patterns in groups I (feminine) and II (masculine and neuter):

an a-adjective (feminine) (oblique case puitra, maîna, tarda) matched with a u-adjective (oblique case puitru, maî(n)u, tardu).

Group B: Gendered forms all have the same (or almost the same) pattern (e-themed) corresponding to noun group III (oblique case: foarte, facile, reale).

Examples:

The shortened oblique feminine ending -eies refers to -al(e) type of adjectives and corresponds to regular (natiunaleis, oblique feminine plural).

The L-final stems exhibit l-vocalisation and l-dropping.

The -er final masculine adjectives correspond to feminine -re (-ra) adjectives and can exhibit -(e)r dropping (see puit - puitru).

Using the accusative singular form of adjectives (adjective - noun agreement)

Adjectives coupled with a main noun in the accusative take the corresponding non nasal singular oblique ending. Rarely the adjectives take nasal singular endings (cllarą, natiunalę), usually only if the accompanying noun is not stated explicitely).

Example sentences:

Vend o casa větlla. I am selling the old house.

Emp u carr  nou (nuf). I am buying a new car.

§8.2. Forms of possessive pronouns

Plural

There is great variation amog speakers of different regions. The singular endings -a, -u and plural -os, -es, -is comply with other group A adjectives.

In typical plural pronoun (nous-, vous-) - plural forms the dipthongs are no longer present.

The position of stressed pronouns is after the modified noun, preceded by an interjected article

Examples of usage (singular NOM./OBLIQUE):

(un) ort niu                     - (a)/[the] garden of ours         /niw/

ortul meu /mɛw/ /mew/      - my garden*

casa a   moaîa /moia/mea, mǎ            - my house

casa a   nuiia /nâua                 - our house

ortul     nosť (e)/                       - our garden*

palaulu nuiu                            - our palace                  /'no̯s:tju/ ~ /'no̯s:tɾju/

The unstressed clitic pronoun versions are given in cursive:

ma(-)casa, casa(-)mǎ                my house

ma-hoara, hoara(-)mǎ              my time (hour)            /mɐ.͜  'wa.rɐ/

ton fís - fiu(l)(-)toi                    your son*

teu palau                                  your palace                  /təw.pɐ.'law/

son estadiu                               his/her stadium

The position of the given pronoun forms is obligatory.

The neuter gender and plural 1st and 2nd persons only have a proclitic form (meu /mə(w)/, teu, seu, nust, vâst, seu), which is equal to the stressed form in singular (meu, teu, seu). In front of vowel-initial nouns use mon, ton, son.

The obligatory usage and placement of articles is given in the examples (always with stressed possessive pronouns).

The forms mǎ, tǎ, sǎ can be either stressed (after the modified noun) or unstressed (as proclitics or enclitics, hyphenation is optional in front of a consonant-initial noun).

The oblique forms used with postposition possessive are used as emphatic, and reversed forms (front possessive) are used more frequently:

în ortulu meu - in my garden

în meu ortu(lu) - in my garden

de casa a mea - from my house

a casa mea - at home)  careful: (preposition a):  a casa ( a ) mea

de ton fiu(lu) - about your son             (clitic pronoun)

(a) de fii(i)s tuois, de tons fii(i)s /ortiis - about your sons, gardens

(b) de orts tíis, de casis túeis - about your gardens, houses (definite) /'ti̯.is/ /'tu̯.ejs/

Examples (a) and (b) use different emphasis in the sentence (on the noun, or unmarked) in (a), and on the possessive pronoun in (b).

In the accusative, typically the noun can have a nasal singular ending (-ą,-ę,-ų), and the stressed pronouns are in the non-nasal oblique form:

casą tuoia(ua)                         your house                   (acc., direct object)

o /a casa tuoia                        the/a house of yours   (acc.)

ma casą                        my house                     (acc.)

ortų meu(lu)                your garden                 (acc., direct object)

l'/un' ort meu                         the /a garden of yours (acc.)

mon ortų                      my garden                   (acc.)

The clitic pronouns (third examples) can only be proclitic, because you cannot place an enclitic after a nasal ending (-ą,-ę,-ų). This rule transfers to the plural accusative forms also:

mes cases                     my houses                   (nom./acc.)

mos ortos                     my gardens                  (nom./acc.)

If an article marker is included, a stressed possessive is used after the modified noun:

les cases meies - los ortos meos.

A specific conlang rule: for objects pertaining to the sentence (clause) main subject, and stated in definite forms with no definite article, there is no need to explicitly state the possessive pronoun (my, his, etc.) -

Sou în/a casa ( mea ) - I am at home - I am at /in my [own] house.

§9. Past participles of regular verbs

Past participles are used:

(a) in compound tenses (active voice)

auxilliary verb to have  (aurea), conjugated +         past participle, invariable

(b) in compound verbal forms (passive)

auxilliary verb to be  (éssua), conjugated +                         past participle, modified for gender and no.

(c) as adjectives (nominal words), modified for gender, number and case.

Invariable past participles are divided into regular and irregular.

Past participles use the past verbal stem, but in regular verbs it is easily obtained by removing the present infinitive ending:

cantà - to sing, stem - cant- (present and past)

Regular past participles are those that end in either -àt (1st group of verbs, -a- theme) or -it (the remaining groups), all of them called the t-participles:

cantà - to sing,                         stem - cant-                 past participle: cantàt (sung)   /kɐn.'ta̯t/        I

monè - to warn,                       stem - mon-                  past participle: monit (warned) /mo.'ni̯t/       II

escriè - to write                        stem - escri-                past participle: escrit (written)            /ə.'skri̯t/         III

finí - to finish                            stem - fin-                    past participle: finit (finished)  /fɪ.ni̯t/             IV

To form the compound past tense (widely used to express any "past action") use the conjugated auxilliary form of the verb to have (aurea, present tense):

Am cantàt a cançon per Eleną. I sang/have sung a song for Elena (accusative, DO).

Ea a scrit lu llifr. She wrote the book (acc., DO)

9.1. Past participles irregular forms (s- participles, -ut participles)

The irregular formation of a past participle can follow one of these rules:

(1) stem + -s    (+ -t)

(2) stem with the final consonant replaced by -s (+ -t)

(3) stem + -t

(4) stem + -ut

Every verb can potentially have a -t- type participle (as seen above), which is connected to different aspectual considerations (perfective aspect in -t or imperfective aspect in -s).

Most regular verbs can be considered bi-aspectual - one form, a t-participle (àt, it) can represent any aspect contextually.

Examples of past participles

manè - to stay              stem - man-                 past participle: mans (remained) /mãns/    (II)

currè - to run                stem - curr-                  past participle: currs (run)       /kurs/          (III)

perdè - to lose              stem - perd- (per- d )      past participle: pers (lost)        /pɛrs/         (III)

savè - to know             stem - sav- (saû- /w/*)  past participle: saùt (known)   /sɐ.'u̯t/           (III)

capè - to catch             stem - cap-                     past participle: capt (caught)    /kɐp˺t/           (III)

querre - to ask              stem - querr- (que- rr )   past participle: ques (asked)    /ke̯z/             (III)

The rule no. 4 serves as a regularisation method for most of the irregular verbs' past participles, because most verbs can have a -ut type participle. An -s type participle sometimes requires -t and sometimes -ut to be converted to a t-participle correctly.

capè - to catch                         stem - cap-                   PP: capt, caput, cabut*

manè - to stay              stem - man-                 PP: mans mansut, mass(u)t**

savè - to know             stem - sav- (saû-)          PP: saùt, sapt, sabut*, sagut***

querrè - to ask              stem -querr- (- rr -)         PP: ques, quest

* voicing (p → b /b/).

* The irregular verb savè etymological rhymes with capè (sapè, from Lat. sapĕre)

* Consonant cluster simplification, with previous vowel nasalisation /mɐ̃.'sut/

* Velar infixation, breaks the vowel meet (hiatus): /sɐ.'ɡu̯t/~/sɐ'.ɣu̯t/

Additional -ut forms based on -s- type participles are not widely used in verbal compound tenses, instead they are more used as adjectives:

un (h)om         mansut, râmass(t) - a man remaining

une giene         râmasste           - a women remaining

l'informaçon    sabusa /sabuda - a known information

un'informatiu   râqueste                        - a required/wanted information

9.2. Past participles as regular adjectives

When used as adjectives, the PP forms are inflected as group A (feminine -a-, masculine -u- type), with the invariable verbal PP form used as a masculine singular base form (zero-ending, nominative).

un poeme (M.) cantat - a sung poem

un liffr (M.)     escrit - a written book

un urs (M.)      capt - a caught bear

In adjective form, the ending -at loses the graphic grave accent. The -t in the morphemes -at, -it or -ut, changes to -s- /z/ in between certain vowels:

un cantiú         cantate /k.ɐn.'ta.zə/           - a sung song

un cantíu         escrise             /(ə)'skri.zə/             - a written song

un' animau       captu   /'ka̯p.tu/ ~ /ka̯p˺tu/   - a caught animal

If the previous vowel is -a-:

-t- in front of -e-: narrate(s)

-d- in front of  -a, -o: narrada, narrados (narráus)

-t- or elided in front of -u-: narratu/narráu; narráus / narrados

Inflection endings are normally added to stems ending in consonant clusters:

un' animau       persu   /'pɛr.su/                  - a lost animal

-      -ut type stems can have the -t- changed into -s-, -d- /ð/, elided or occasionally kept as -t-

l'informaçon    sabusa /sabuda - a known information

fatu /destíu     sabutu/sabuu (sabúu, sabú) - known destiny (avoiding the unclarity of sabusu)

une force         absolute (absulute, absolúe, absoluse - accepted alternatives)

-      -it type stems can have the -t- elided in front of a vowel (but, in front of -a-: -isa)

finit, finíu (finísu) M.; finíe (finise); finisa, F. - finished, adj. (accepted forms)

definíos - definisos (M            pl.), definíes - definises (F pl.) - defined, adj. (accepted forms)

§10. Expressing the indirect object - the dative case (concept)       

In an SVO structured sentence, the direct object is expressed by the accusative (question answered regarding to the verb action: who?/whom? or what? the action affects)

An indirect object is the beneficiary of the verb action (question answered: to, towards who?/whom? or what? the action takes place)

A sentence can have a direct and/or indirect object

S - V - (DO) - (IO).

An indirect object is expressed by the dative case:

I am writing a letter (DO) to the girl(s) (IO)

Dative case endings in singular: * for persons - women and girls

The dative case articles in the singular are: uni (indefinite) and li (definite).

If the feminine gender is important to be expressed, the indefinite article can be: unei (feminine, D) - only applicable to people as IOs.

In the plural, all of the dative forms are indentical to general oblique forms.

Escrif a carta (a) filleis - lis fillis

preposition a - optional - moves the definite article to the end of the noun (-eis form)

Escrif a carta li fillei - a fillii. preposition a

postposited article li contraction - fillei + (l)i → fillii

The indefinite article is always used in front of the nominal.

Escrif a carta (a) unei filli.

Escrif a carta (a) uni ami(g)u.

They are running towards the/a house.

Ei curr face (a) / a-face uni case.

- a-face li casei

           - faç' a casii    (contraction: casei + li)

Expression a-face as an invariable form uses the oblique general case of the noun face (facie, face - oblique case).

(E)speru (a) uni diei cllaru. I hope for a nice day.

Some speakers contract the indefinite article uni to just i-, omitting thus the preposition a.

Esperu i-diei cllaru.

Escrif a carta i-amigu / i-amigui/amii, unei amigui/amii. I am writing a letter to a friend (M/F).

In case multiple agreeing endings -ei are needed, the second one and all the subsequent endings are contracted to -i:

Escrif a carta li fillei puitri - a fillii puitri        (to a/the beautiful girl).

Personal pronouns in the dative case It is possible to use indistinguished gender pronouns for the third person dative:

use ei (proclitic li) for to him/her, and eis (proclitic lis) - for to them.

In imperatives, use short unstressed clitic forms now as enclitics:

Canta-mi! /'kan.ta.mi/ you, sing to me!

Canta-lis! you, sing to them!

For 1st and 2nd person plural, use enclitic forms ną, vą:

Canta-ną! /nɑ̃:/           You, sing to us!

Personal pronoun reiteration rule

Dative object reiteration is necessary by using a verbal clitic pronoun:

(el) far le dona a rosa   a fillei. /lə.'do̯.na/

fillei sui           (emphatic)

                                   a fillei puitri

Father gives a rose to [his] daughter.

The subject's own possessive marker is not necessary if you use a definite object noun-form with no definite article (a fillei):

a fillei; fillei sui   - to his daughter (the latter - more emphatic)

The emphatic definite pronoun sui displaces the preposition a (because the minimum number of coordinative particles is fulfilled).

By rearranging the position of the definite article (li or -i), you can add different points of emphasis

El om le dona a rosa   li gienei puitri. standard, non-emphatic;

El om le dona a rosa   a gienii puitri. to the beautiful woman

a gieni puitrii. to the beautiful woman (non-exclusive)

li puitrei gieni. to the beautiful  woman (exclusional on attribute)

El om le canta a cançon a gienii/a mullerii    The man sings a song to [his] woman/wife.

li suei, tuei                  to his own, to yours

âcei suei, âcelei sui     to the one that is his.

âcelei(-a)                     to that one       (postposition -a)*

âcelei (puitri)              to that one (being beautiful)

Demonstrative pronouns are considered definite, with a visible postposited definite article in the long form:

âcelei, / âcelui(u)  (F/M) to that one (for persons)    /ə.'se.lej/ /ə.'se.luj(u)/

âceii / âceili (gender unspecific) - to that one - for inanimate indirect objects /ə.'se.i̯/ /ə.'sej.li/

The short form, proclitic demonstrative is ci/cis (akin to the definite article li/lis) - to that/those.

All short demonstrative forms require definite forms of the modified nouns or pronouns:

âcei/cei suei - to that one that is his, (â)cei gienei - to that woman

âcelei sui - to that one that is his

See more on demonstrative pronouns in §.

Example - masculine/neuter gender

Sa casa mira    a-face ton-ortu                         His house faces (looks towards) your / garden.

a-face ortui tuiu/meu*                                                                       your/ my* garden

a-face uni ortu/palatiu (palau)             (towards) a garden/a palace   

a-face ortui /palatii                             (towards) the garden/the palace

The definite article is added as a postposition (singular: -i) to the main noun of the IO phrase.

§11. The subjunctive present tense (active)

The subjunctive mood expresses statements that are (possibly) contrary to facts, or uncertain, desired etc.

We use prepositions to introduce dependent clauses, such as:

câ, ut /kə/ /ut/ - that              (+subjunctive mood verb - standard)

sâ /sə/ - that                           (greater level of uncertaintly/desirability)

scâ(t) /skə(t)/ - "if"                  (dual possibility)

când /kənd / - when                (a condition for the main clause action to take place)

In negative commands (prohibitions), we also use the subjunctive mood.

Subjunctive present verb forms

The preposition câ is spelled qu' or qu- in front of a vowel (qu'il cante, qu-il cante)

Pay attention to the 3rd person sg. and pl. - and the change of thematic vowels.

Some regions use -i in the 2nd person sg. - câ ti canti, monesi, curri.

The 1st and 2nd person pl. (ni, vi) have the same verbal forms as for the indicative present.

The forms monqui, curgi are based on adding a (regular) -c- /k/ to the stem of the indicative form (ia monc, currc* + -i → subjunctive)

The 3rd person singular -a ending roughly denotes an imperfective aspect, while -i denotes perfective aspect.

Group IV has certain differences.

Some regions use -i in the 2nd person sg. - câ ti finei, vinei.

* Most of the verbs in the 3rd group can completely take the endings of the indicative of group IV (present) to indicate a perfective aspect, and can be used as such in the subjunctive mood.

Example: escriè /(ə)skri.'e/ - to write

Indicative mood aspectual difference example

Ti mereu (sěmpre) le scriis a nota a iei. You always leave her (write to her) a note.

... scriis ei a nota.

Ti le scries a carta a iei (scries ei a carta). You are writing her a letter.

Subjunctive mood aspectual difference example

Sâ il le scrii(t) a nota - that /if he leaves her a (quick note) - perfective aspect present subjunctive

Sâ il le scria(t) a carta  - that/if he writes her a letter - imperfective aspect present subjunctive

Când il le scrii(t) a ... - when he (finishes writing) to her - perfective aspect present subjunctive

A supposedly perfective verb form was chosen with când (when/as soon as), a preposition which imposes a (fulfilled) condition for the main action to take place.

Certain verbs of the 3rd group cannot take an -i- themed form, but usually have an -s- type participle.

§11.1. Present subjunctive of irregular verbs éssua and aurea (to be/to have)

The present subjunctive forms of to be are as follows

The e- forms in the right hand column can be used without a specific subjunctive preposition in initial dependent clauses, with conditionality inferred (if, with the supposition that). The negative forms are based on the right hand column with addition of ni- (ň /ɲ/) to the front of the forms with stressed initial syllable (ňessâm). The unstressed initial syllable turns to ne- or ni-:

nessaime /nə.'sɛm/, nissaime /nɪ.'sɛm/.

Passive forms are built with the unstressed variant of the affirmative verb: sâm /səm/ si(s), sa /sɐ/(si), saime /sɛm/, saite / sɛt/, siu /siw/.

qu'il sa seguit /ˌsɐ.sə.'ɡi̯t/ - that he were followed                 (seguè, III, to follow)

This construction can be used for the present and also recent past.

The present subjunctive of the verb "to have" is as follows

The columns show full stressed imperfective (e-themed) and perfective (a-themed) subjunctive forms.

The -i type conjugation for the 2nd person sg. (tí) uses the unstressed forms ei and aî /aj/.

The negative form is obtained by adding the initial sound /ɲ/ (written ni-) to the stressed afirmative forms (first person niaîam / ňaîam or with original -ii-, but phonetically /'ɲa̯.jam/)

The negative verb form is always stressed.

The unstressed auxilliary forms are: em /əm/, is, ei (ea), eame (eams), eate (eats), eau (eu).

Example:

qu'em tardàt - that I were coming late

qu'aiiam âtardàt / qu'em âtardàt a reunionę - that I were late to the meeting

The stressed form emphasizes the perfective aspect of the compound tense, but the clitic em can be used for either aspect.

Some speakers use the clitic am for a perfective aspect: qu'am âtardàt

§12. The genitive case - possessive and partitive

Parts of the sentence which express possession may use the genitive case:

the door of the house

Elena's house

part of the house

These are only circumstantial - non essential - parts of the sentence, added to the main S-V-O structure.

The definite article is appended to nouns in the genitive case, while the indefinite article has a normal front (proclitic) position.

The genitive endings in singular are the following:

* genitive indefinite article: unui (all genders) /u.nuj/

Disregarding the -s forms (very useful for generalisations and personal names, like Carmen's), the genitive endings are similar to the dative ones (except in group II, and group IV).

In the definite form, the appended article is -lui for all genders, so nouns lose the typical case endings and get euphonic endings

-ului     /-u.luj/ (masc., fem., neuter) and

-elui     /-ə.luj/ (feminine)

The feminine nouns with the stressed infix -at- will typically have the genitive singular termination -ului, attached after the infix -ta- in singular: ciutaului, veretaului, tempestaului. The stress falls on the newly created diphthong -au- (/sju.'taw.luj/).

The plural genitive endings are as follows

In adjectives of the genitive phrase mostly the plural endings will be common, unmarked: -os, -es (like nom./acc.)

In the definite form, the appended article is -lur for M./N. gender, -ler /lər/ for F., so nouns mostly lose the typical case endings and get euphonic endings -u- or -e- (-(i)ulur, -eler).

The indefinite singular genitive article is unui /u.nuj/, and it matches with indefinite genitive noun forms.

The plural indefinite article is unur/uner (M/F), and it matches with the unmarked genitive plural noun endings (-os, -es)

unui case /uner cases - of a house/some houses.

unui muri / unur muros - of a wall /some walls.

There is another genitival coordinative article used when unui is syntactically inappropriate:

al casei - of a house /al/ ~ /ɐɫ/

al muri - of a wall

ale caser - of houses /ɐ.lə/

alu murur - of walls /ɐ.lu/

The use of -s singular genitive forms is possible in nominal groups III and IV

la puarta al ciutats

el cllur al fruitu(s) -the color of the fruit

The definite article is not repeated in a genitive phrase

la puarta al ciutats - puarta ciutatelui (ciutaului)

el cllur al fruitu(s) - clluar fruitului

Personal pronouns in the genitive case

The genitive pronouns are stressed. Generally, for the first and second person they are used only for partitive function:

pars (al) mei, al mei pars - (a) part of me

pars (al) nei /noi - part of us (as a whole)

pars ale/ás noi - part of us (feminine) - gender specificity

If the genitival pronoun is moved from the post-noun position, the coordinative article is obligatory.

casa al lui - elui(a)  casa  /'ɛ̯.luj(ɐ)/                 casa al eur - eiur(a) casa          /ɛwr/ /'e.jur(ɐ)/

casa al lei - elei(a)  casa  /'ɛ̯.lej(ɐ)/                  casa al eier - eiier(a) casa          /'ej(ə)r / /'e̯.͡jʝər(ɐ)/

The coordinative article in the third person is indistictive: al. The particle -a atached to the front (long) forms - elui(a), elei(a), etc. - is optionally used in definite syntagms as a demonstrative:

eluia  palau - his palace.

For indeterminate gender 3rd person plural, some regions use eir - el ort eira /ejr(ɐ)/- their garden.

§12.1. Usage of the genitive and adjectival agreement

If adjectives are accompanied by the noun they refer to in a genitive phrase:

- in singular, they get the corresponding indefinite endings (-e, -i, ..., not -s):

unui case puitre /caselui puitre

unui orti puitri / ortului puitri

- in plural, they get the unmarked endings -os or -es (like the nom./acc.):

ale caser puitres, caseler puitres

ás ortur puitros, ortulur puitros

Using the definite article on an adjective is done for emphasis:

puitrelui case               - of the beautiful house (rarely used)

al case âcelui puitre     - of the house, that beautiful one

al casei âcei puitre

§13. Irregular verbs

Group I

We will present two important verbs with similar patterns:

daua    /'da̯.wa/, /'da̯.wɐ/, to give

stea     /stja/, /ste̯a/, to stay, to stand

These verbs have a paralel pattern of perfective and imperfective forms.

The present indicative

These are the perfective forms (I give out, I stand). The form don (I give) is borrowed from the verb to donate (donà). The alternative forms are ia dâm, ia stâm.

This is a complete pattern from the 3rd group, with the sound of -î- interjected in between the stem sound /a/ and the endings.

The subjunctive present - again uses a similar stem to the indicative present perfective.

The infinitival nouns are dare /'darə/ and stǎre (stěre) /'stje.rə/.

The past participles are regular: dàt /da̯t/, stàt /sta̯t/. Their adjectival forms are:

dat, date(s)/dada, dados, stat, state/stata/stadu, /stazi(s)/statos, stados - the transformation of the stem final -t- depends on the next vowel of the grammatical ending. In brief:

- there is no -s- /z/ transformation except for -z- /z/ in front of -i(s) in the plural.

- In front of -a, -t- optionally changes to -d- (but not in stata).

- In front of -u/-o-, -t- optionally changes to -d- /ð/ or gets erased (dáus, stáus - dados, datos)

First group verbs are very regular. The third irregular verb would be

naua; nuà /'na̯.wɐ/, /nu.'a:/ ~ /nwa:/, PP nuàt, infinitive noun: nuare.

The present indicative: ia nú (nuu), ti nues, il nua, ...

The present subjunctive: câ ia nui, câ ti nuis,...

Groups II/ III

Group II -ea type: tinea /'ti.nja/ (perfective), tenea /'te.nja/ (imperfective), to hold, to be holding, to have, to keep. Some regions have the infinitive forms tiua and teua.

The pattern for the present indicative tense is: ia tiu/teu, ti tís/tius, tés/teus, il tie (tin)/té (tén), ...

The plural forms are regular for group II (ni tinaime, ..., ei tineu/teneu). PP: tent, tint

Regions which have the 2nd person sg. in -i use the forms: tí tii, ti teni/tesi (also as imperatives for hold!)

seiea, seua /'se.j:ɐ/ ~ /'se̯.wɐ/ - to sit

ia sit/sièu, ti sěis, il sěie, ni seŷaime, vi seŷaite, ei sieiu  PP:sess(ut)

The most common basic imperative form is in -i: sědi! /'sje:.di/ or sěsi! /'sje:.zi/.

The verb is reflexive most commonly (me-sièu, te-sěis, ...), but, in imperatives, the reflexive pronoun is mostly omitted (alternative: sědi-te!)

Pattern verbs:

group II/III -ou type

poua /'po.wɐ/ - to be able to, doua /'do.wɐ/ - to be allowed to, moua /'mo.wɐ/ - to move,

voua /'ʋo.wɐ/ - to want

The pattern for the present indicative tense is:

ia pou, ti pous/púes (pòs/pus, dus/vus), il pue(t)/pu(t), pò(t), ni puaime, vi puaite, ei pueu /pwew/;

PP: pugut (dogut, vogut), pout (dout, vout), possut (vullut); regular type -(i)t (pot, dut, vut, poit, doit, voit)

The similar verb voua has some differences: ia vull, ti vulls (vus), il vue, ..., even though the general pattern is also used (ia vôu, ti vous,...)

group III -eu type

veua /'ʋe.wɐ / - to see (II), creua /'kre.wɐ /, leua /'le.wɐ/ (PP: lesut, leut, lis(t) - of type: veua)

The pattern for the present indicative tense is:

(group II) ia veu, ti vés, il vé(it), ni veŷaime, vi veŷaite, ei veŷeu /ʋə.'͡jʝew/. PP: vist, vesut.

(group III) ia creu, ti crés, il cré(it), ni creŷaime, vi creŷaite, ei creiiu /'kre.͡jʝu/ PP: cresit, cresút, cregut, creút.

The conlang sound of -ŷ-/-ii- /͡jʝ/appears from original Latin -d- or -g- (vidēre, credĕre, legĕre).

The verb savè (saua) has this III au-type pattern only in the singular and 3rd person pl.

ia sau, ti sàs/saus, il sà(it), sapt, ni savaime/saîaime/sassaime, vi savaite/saîaite/sassaite, ei saiiu (PP: sagut, saút, sabut)

The verb caua is an -au type similar to creua:

ia cau, ti càs/caus, il caî(t)/caii/ cade(t), ni caŷaime, vi caŷaite, ei caiiu (PP: cast, cas(ut)).

The verb to eat belongs to this pattern, but has an irregular first person sg. (not in -eu):

iedè - to eat (III)

ia ím/iem, ti iedes/iès, il iede, ni ieŷaime, vi ieŷaite, ei ieiiu PP: iess(ut)

Group III -x pattern

faua /'fa̯.wɐ/ - to do, nea /'ne.a/ - to give birth (stem na-), diua /'di.wɐ / - to say

ia faix, ti fas, il fa(t)/ faît, ni faîssaime, vi faîssaite, ei fau, PP: fat, fait, fet

(adjectives: fet, fete, faisa/feuta, faises/faisos, fesis; fat, fate, fauta, fautes, fautos, fazis)

ia naix, ti nais, il nai(t) /ne:/~/nɛ:/, ni naîssaime, vi naîssaite, ei nau, PP: nat, nait, net (rarely)

ia dix, ti dis, il di(t), ni diaime (disaime), vi diaite (disaite), ei diiu (diu), PP: dit

(adjectives: né(t), né(i)e, néa/né(i)es, néus/néos, nésis)

(adjectives: dit(e), dita/diúda, díu (ditu), dites, ditos, diúes, diudes, diutes/diudos, diutos, diuzis)

An example of nearly regular group III verb:

viua /'ʋi̯.wɐ/ - to live

Present indicative: ia vif, ti vies (vius, vifs/vi(i)s), il vie(t), ni viiaime (viaime), vi viiaite (viaite), ei viiu (viu).

Originally from Latin: vivĕre, later vivīre, thus the preferred form is ni viiaime /ʋi.i.'jɛm/, etc., to a possible alternative viaime /ʋi.'(j)ɛm/ ~ /ʋjɛm/.

Influenced by viua, the verb diua also has alternative equivalent forms: ni diiaime/ni diaime, etc.

The forms ti viis (vis), ti vius (from Latin vivis), are acceptable as perfective forms, or dual-aspectual forms, and are widely used (also akin to Catalan: vius).

PP: vit, viut, vigut (akin to: dit - "said")

The -us forms of irregular verbs: ti dius, saus, vius, are all acceptable as indicative and also subjunctive present forms.

Group III infix pattern

creixè /krə.'ʃe/ - to grow, in some regions: creixe(r) /'kre̯.ʃ:ə/ ~ /'krɛ̯.ʃ:ə/

ia creix, ti creixes, il creixe, ni creixaime /krə.'ʃem/, vi creixaite, ei cressu /'krɛ̯.s:u/, /'kre̯.s:u/

PP: cressut, creis(t), crèis(t) /'krɛ:(ɪ̯)st/ /'kre:(ɪ̯)st/; infinitival noun: lu creistre, crèistre - grow(ing)

Typically the vowel in the form creist is long and open /ɛ:/, even though, the spelling crèist is less common.

The adjective form typically contains the -ut- morpheme (grown - cressut), which follows the d/t rules as in dat, stat.

Adjectives: cressut, cressute, cressuta/cressuda, cressu(t)u - cressú, cressúes, cressúos, obl. pl. cressú(i)s.

Group IV

The only fully irregular verb in this group would be: it(t)a, ídda /'i̯.ta/ ~ /'i.ðɐ/ - to go

ia ieu, ti ides/iis, il ide(t)/íe/ii /'i.ə/, ni iďaime /ij.'ʝɛm/, vi iďaite, ei iďu(t)/íu(t) /'i.ʝu/

PP: ít, infinitival noun: ire /'i.rə/, -r infinitive: ir /iɾ/

Adjectives are rarely used with this verb, but a substantivised adjective "ida" /'iðɐ/ - leaving, going away, is more commonly used than ire (going).

The common imperative ends in -i for the 2nd person sg. (tí): idi! /'i:.di/(go!)

Infinitives in -ua, -ea of irregular verbs

Infinitives in -ua, -ea are representative forms, they get split with the final -a becoming a preposition to a verb in certain contexts:

Pens a/de veua lu templu                                 I am thinking about seeing the temple.

Pensu veua lu templu.*

Dou de veua lu templu. I have to see the temple

Pens a veŷer u(u) templu. /ɐ.ʋə.'͡jʝe(r)/          ... a temple

Vull a tine lu camp. /ɐ.'ti.nə/                          I want to hold/"host"/organize/prepare the camp.

Vull a tiner u camp. /ɐ.ti.'ne(r)/                     ... a camp

Dou de tinea  lu camp. I have to ... the camp.

Pensa(t) a (i)essu bou(n) (buin). /ɐ'(j)e̯s:u/    He is thinking of being good.

Due d' ésser attif / attiva. /'de̯s:ə(r)/              He /she has to be active.

Ea vue(t) a (i)aure fantes. /ɐ'(j)aw.rə/                        She wants to have kids.

Vull (a) auver a casa. I want to have a house.

* The extended form pensu /'pen.su/ or other required prepositions (dou de...) displace the preposition "a" to a final position in the verbal form: veua. The forms in -ua, -ea also provide a "preposition" to introduce the direct object when a direct object article is necessary:

de veua lu templu, de tinea lu camp, so sometimes speakers use the same "a" doubled:

a veua lu templu.

In front of a vowel, these infinitive forms will become more regularised (traditional) forms in -r (tiner, veŷer/veér, ésser, auver, far, naixer)

The forms in -ua, -ea always represent the present subjunctive in the 3rd person sg.

qu'ea veua lu fant                    that she sees the child

qu'il tinea les cllaves               that he keeps ("holds") the keys

qu'il diua(t) o veretat               that he tells the truth.

qu'ea mi-creua a mii                that she believes me

qu'ea voua fau-o(c)                 that she be willing to do that

qu'il poua leua lu lliffr                        that he be able to read the book

In the fifth and sixth examples, the first verb is a conjugated subjunctive present, while the second verb represents an infinitive.

-a in these infinitives usually suplies for needed syntactical prepositions (sometimes pushed back as postpositions) that act as introducers to verbs (a veu...) or to direct objects (veu-a - DO).

Infinitives with enclitics

Typically, enlitic particles are added to -u-/w/ or -e- type infinitives (-ua, -ea with -a displaced).

Examples

(a) fau-o /'fa.wo/ - to do that, from Lat. hoc

a fau-mi favoarę -  mi-faua favoarę - to do me a favor

a fau-m' o favoar - to do me the favor

tine-o /'tin.jo/ - to hold that

tinea-o /'tin.jɐ.wo/ - to hold (on) to that, also: a tine-o, where syntactically possible

Regular verbs use the short infinitive with the stressed thematic vowel, in front of these particles:

Dou de/Am de cantà-o /kɐn.'ta̯.u/ - I need to sing it.

Infinitival nouns

Typically, the verbal nouns of -ua /wɐ /type verbs will have the unstressed ending -ûre /wrə/: poure, doure, voure, moure, veure, creure, diure, viure, tiure/teure, saure (sapre).

The verb faua has the form fare /'fa.rə/, (but also: faure), influenced by dare and the third person singular (monosyllable) il fa(t).

The verb nea has the form naixer /'nɛ̯.ʃ:ə/, based on 1st person naix, influenced by creixer and ésser, but also: naistre /'nɛ̯s.trə/, influenced by creistre and estre.

Sometimes an aspect change in the verbal concept can arise in group III (and sometimes group II) by changing to -ire:

group II change to perfective: vuire, muire, veire, (ob)tenire

group III to imperfective: creire, diire (dire), viire

For infinitives in -e(a), the infinitival nouns in group II are regular in -ere:

tenere, tinere

Basic imperatives (2nd singular - tí)

Typically the 3rd person present indicative singular form serves as the imperative:

'''vé!, cré! di'''! '''creixe! fa!, ten /tę' !''/tẽ(n)/ /tɛ:(j)/, tin! /tĩ̯n/

Some verbs with palatal final stem consonants can have a stem-form imperative.

veig! /vɛ̯dʒ/ -see! equivalent to stem veŷ-, veii-        creix! grow!

faî! /fa̯j/ - do (influenced by daî -give!), mi-creig! /mi.'krɛ̯dʒ/ - believe me!

Negative imperatives are constructed using subjunctive forms:

nu veis/nu vesi! - don't be looking!

nu creis! don't believe!

nu faîs /fa̯js/ -don't do! popular - nu facis! /'fa̯.sis/

nu diis! etc.

2nd person singular forms in -i (regional)

Replace -s by -i in the 2nd person form, or add -i after a nasal (optional)

tí véi, ti dii, ti teni/téi, ti tii (tini, -n- elision).

These forms account for the indicative present and subjunctive present.

The subjunctive forms (present)

The first person sg. is usually constructed by adding a -i to the monosyllable stem form of the:

2nd person sg. indicative in -s, or the 1st person sg. indicative in -x (no matter the number of syllables):

câ ia vesi, cresi, tesi, pui/poi/putgi, mui, moi/motgi, vui, voi/vutgi, casi, sappi, dixi, creixi, feixi, neixi, vixi (from viua).

Other personal forms are constructed with the (present) stem + the endings:

-is, -ua or -i, -aime, -aite, -au (2nd group -eau)

veis/vesis, veua/veigi, veŷaime, veŷaite, (véiiau)

teis, teua/tei, teni; tenaime, tenaite, teneau /'tẽn.jaw/

tiis, tiua/tii, tinaime, tinaite, tineau

creis/cresis, creua (creigi), creŷaime, cre ŷaite, creiiau.

faîs/facis, faua (fei, faci), faime/faissaime, faite/faissaite, feu

neis, nea (nei), naissaime/naime, naissaite/naite, neu

diis/dius, diua/dii, diaime, diaite, diau (diiau, diu)

viis/vius, viua/vii, viiaime, viiaite, viau (viiau)

caîs/caus, caua/caî, caŷaime, caŷaite, cassu (cau)

saîs/saus, saîpa/saî, savaime, savaite, sassu (sau)

vuis (vous), voua/vui, vuaime, vuaite, vuiau (veu,vou)

creixis, creissa/creixi, creixaime, creixaite, cressu (cressiau)

The provided examples give you all the possible patterns for irregular verbs subjunctive mood.

Some short -au forms of the indicative can serve as 3rd person plural subjunctives (cau, sau, vou, deu (<doua), veu (<veua, voua)) etc.

The verbs seiea /seua has the subjunctive present forms:

câ ia sesi/siei /'se.zi/,  ti sesis, il seiea, ni seŷaime, vi seŷaite, ei sessu / sessiau PP: sess(ut)

câ ia isi /'i:zi/ ti iedis/isis, il iedea/ièa, ni ieŷaime, vi ieŷaite, ei iessu (iessiau) PP: iess(ut)

Group IV - ita, to go

The verb: it(t)a, ídda /'i̯.ta/ ~ /'i.ðɐ/ - to go, has substantial irregularities in the subjunctive, because of the occasional loss of -t-/ -d-:

câ ia iei /'je.i/, ti ideis/ius /ju̯s/, il iď(e), ídea/iia /͡jʝa/, ni iďaime /ij.'ʝɛm/, vi iďaite, ei iau(t) /jaw/.

Derivation verbs

Derivation verbs made from irregular stems (e.g. restea/restà - to stay, reside) usually become fully or partially regularised, but some do not (like cunea/cunà - to know a person)

Examples: restea, restà - to reside - in the present indicative: ia restui /rest(u), ti restes etc.

In the subjunctive present: câ ia resti/restigui /rə.'sti.ɡi/ câ ti restis, qu'il reste etc.

rendè /rən.'de/ - to render, to give (from: re + daua): in the present indicative: ia rens /rend, ti rendes, ... ei rent (rend).

The derived verb cuneà /cunà is a bit irregular: in the present indicative: ia cunau/cuneix, ti cunaîs/cuneixes, il cuneie/cuneixe, ni cunaime, vi cunaite, ei cuneu.

In the subjunctive present: câ ia cuneixi, câ ti cuneis (cuneixis), qu'il cunea/cuná, câ ni cunaime, câ vi cunaite, qu'ei cuneau/cuneu.

'''§14. Demonstrative pronouns and particles. Comparing adjectives'''

The demonstrative pronouns indicate a distance from an object in a refential system:

proximal - here, distal - there, and a middle (medial) distance (closer to the co-speaker or 2nd person).

Demonstrative pronouns are definite determiners.

Proximal pronouns

CEST ort, CESTA casa, CESTU palau (M/F/N) - this

Distal pronouns

CEL ort, CEA casa, CEU /ÇU palau - that

Middle pronouns

ETÂT ort, ETA casa, ETU palau (medial) /'ɛ.tət/, /'ɛ.tɐ/, /'ɛ.tu/

With these pronouns, you cannot use definite or indefinite articles, they will represent a form of articles, and the modified nouns will be in the definite form.

the door of this house/garden: puarta cestelui case, puarta cestului orti.

to this friend (F) of hers/his: cestii amiei sui

to that friend (F) of his: etii amiei sui

I see those friends of mine: veu etetos /ceos amíos meos /'ɛ.tə.tos/ /sjos/

In plural, the stem form ETÂ-(T) /'ɛ.tət/ becomes ETET- for all genders (etetos, etetes, etetis)

In singular, the stem is ET-, with a reduplication for masculine gender "zero ending". Compare feminine ETA.

14.1. Comparison of regular adjectives

The comparison forms are based on using adverbs like:

COMPARATIVE DEGREE

maî /maj/ - more + positive form adjective

SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

cel /cea maix /ˌsəl.mɛʃ/ /ˌsjɐ.mɛʃ / the one most + positive form adjective

The superlative degree implies a definite term, while the comparative degree can specifically also denote an indefinite term:

maî de /'maj.də/ + general oblique form of the (positive) adjective

aua maî cllara - clearer water

filla maî d'hauta - a taller girl

aua cea maix cllara - the clearest water

fiu cel maig haut /ˌsəl.mɛʒ ͜  awt/ - the tallest boy (young man)        (also maix)

Comparison of inferiority uses these adverbs

meň /meɲ/ - less + positive form adjective

cel / cea meňs /ˌsəl.meɲs/ - the one least + positive form adjective

For explicitely indefinite comparative adjectives, it is possible to use the formula:

meň de + general oblique form of the positive adjective

aua cea meňs cllara - the least clear water

§15. Adverbials

Adverbs are non-variable words attributed to verbs (to indicate a circumstance of the verb action).

Many of them are derived from adjectives by taking only the root with the meaning. An extended form is equal to the neuter gender nominative singular of the adjective.

Examples:

cllar - clear(ly), adjective or adverbial

cllaru - clear(ly), adjective or adverbial

faciu /facil - easy/easily, adjective or adverbial

facile - easy/easily, adjective or adverbial

Am âtardàt mult. I was very late. (adverb)

Hi-su multa gent. There are many people there nearby. (adjective)

Am venit rá. I came early. (adverb)

Iest une manifestatiu rane. It is an early event. (adjective)

Iest un event rá(n).

Lu tâns ie freix (frisc). The weather is chilly ("fresh") (adverb)

Ea vende fruisos friscos. She is selling fresh fruit. (adjective)

For comparison of adverbials derived from regular adjectives, the comparative and superlative degrees are formed with helper words, just like in adjectives (maî, maix, meň, meňs).

Veni maî rá, te prec. Please, come earlier.

Including the word de in the comparative degree structure (maî de, meň de) may create a nuance of indefinite quantity /strength of the feature indicated by the adverbial.

Lu tâns ie maî de freix (frisc). The weather is somewhat colder.

§16. Numbers and counting

Conlang cardinal numbers are partially inflected (numbers 1, 2, 3 and in some regions 4). Numbers for 100, 1000 and zero are accounted as nouns, but in number forms they have limited inflection.

Number 1 - un(u), una

Number one is inflected the same as the article un, but it is a stressed word that behaves like an adjective.

The form una (casa) exists either as a nominative with a numeric quantifier (una), or the oblique case with the indefinite article.

The numeral is considered a determiner, so the accusative case does not require a nasal ending.

Ea a vendut/vist úna casa. She (has) sold/seen     one house (direct object)

The number forms of one (1) are frequently written with an accute accent on the stem (ún), to be differentiated from the article.

Numeric quantifiers can be coupled with the definite article:

los pęt (5) homnes - the five men        /pɛ̃(ŋ)t/ /pẽ(n)t/        (invariable form of 5)

les dues gienes - the two women          /'du:.əs/                      (feminine nom./acc. form of 2)

The definite article marking for number one is usually done by article post-position (nominative):

unul mur = el mur unu, el unu           (the one wall)

unulu palau = lu palau unu, l' unu

una a(-)casa /una:.'ka.zɐ/ = casa a(-)una*, l'una

To make numeric quantifications more understandable, the number one is frequently placed after the noun. The feminine gender is the only one maintaining a sort of definite article post-position (casa a una).

The definite article is often used with the numeral if the noun itself is "hidden": el unu - the one.

A "real" adjective can be derived from the numeral root (un-): unic, unica, unicu - "only", "unique" (adj. group A).

A verb of the 4th group can also be derived: uní (IV) - to unite (ia un, ti unis, il uni).

Number 2 - dou; duos/dues

This numeral represents a dual quantity, and nouns being quantified are used in their plural forms.

The numeral can receive the definite article in a front position: los dous/les dues.

Inflection table

The nominative/acc. form dous is considered indefinite and gender non-specific. The form duos (variant doôs) is considered masculine indefinite/definite.

Number 3 - tres, tri-

This numeral is accompanied by a plural noun. Essentially it has two standard forms: nominative/accusative: tres /trɛs/, /trəs/, and oblique: triu /triw/.

Inflection table

This table only adds feminine gender specific nominative trie (trě) and accusative treies.

Number 4 - txetre /'͡tʃɛt.rə/, tetre, tětre is invariable in most regions. Some speakers tend to add inflection marks like in the number 3: -s would be just for the accusative definite (txetres), and feminine gender markers could also be applied: txetrie, txetreies (nom./acc.).

The determiner amb- (ambios, ambes)

The definite determiner amb- (meaning both) refers to two individuals and it cannot be combined with articles or determiners. A reinforced fusive form with dous: ambosduos/ambesdues (both, the two of them) is emphatic.

Inflection table

The combination with dou(s) inflects like dou(s), with the first part invariable: ambi-, changed only in the accusative to ambos-/ambes.

The counting subset

A plural quantifier for a definite phrase usually requires

- the accusative case for the direct object

El fí a tres aňňos (acc. pl.)                  The boy is three years old (lit. has 3 years).

Ea a vendut pęnt cases (acc. pl.)         She (has) sold five houses.

For an indefinite phrase, use the genitive case with dal / dale + the basic plural form (in -os, -es):

Pęt dale cases su pitites. Some five houses are small.

The cardinal numbers

The cardinal number are as follows:

1 - un

2 - dous

3 - tres

4 - txetre

5 - pęt

6 - seix /se(j)ʃ/

7 - sait /sɛt/

8 - hueit /wejt/

9 - neu /nɛw/, also: nâu /nəw/

10 - ditz /di:͡ts/ /di:z/

The number zero: 0 - nule /'nu.ɫə/ is used as a group 1 noun, as a digit.

The numbers 11-20 have two systems:

The system is very easy - system A has the second constituent -tse/-dze, system B has -tin (sg.) and -tienne (pl.) System A reverses the constituents from 17 to 19, having the first one di(u)-, with elision or vocalisation of the original -tz-.

The second system serves good for ordinals with the part -tienne: -tien(nu) - masc./neuter, -tienna (f.) - for ordinal adjectives (of group A).

The numbers 21-29 are constructed from vint (bint) + units: vint-y-un, vint(-y)-dous, vint(-y)-tres,...

The linking -y- /i/ ("and") can be omitted, even for "one": vint-un (rarely).

The numbers 30 - 90 have two systems:

The system is very easy - system A has the constituent -desâmt(e) /də.'səm.tə/, and system B has -compte /'kõ(m)p.tə/. Some units (3-5 system A, 3-7 system B) have a linking -e(t)- towards the second constituent.

The numbers are constructed as follows: trietdesâmt-y-un, trietdesâmte-dous, etc. The numbers above 100 are formed:

(un) sânt (100, C), cěnt-unu (CI), cěntu-dous (CII), cěntu-trietdesâmte-dous (CXXXII).

Example sentence:      Am 132 dolares cu míe. I have 132 $ with me.

Inflection of compound numerals: properly inflect units (1-3) and hundreds (100). The number 1.000 (M) in cardinal compounds can have an invariable form (miu, mil-).