Pkalho-Kolo

Pkalho-Kölo started as part of an imaginary world; Pkalho is the name of an ancient city; Kölo means “mouth,” or “language.” I wanted it to be different, both in phonology and grammar, from any natural language.

In grammar, I wanted a language without distinction of parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are supposedly indispensable categories, leading to the need for other word-classes. But the noun-verb distinction is artificial: “thunder” is a noun and a  verb, “lightning” only a noun; a flower is a “thing,” yet "flower" is also a verb. Why not then have only one kind of word?

A second goal was to create an agglutinative language that does not have a huge arsenal of suffixes, but instead uses a small number (32 in the end) very economically. (This was partly because I wanted all affixes to have the form CV.)

I thought it was likely, and it turns out to be true, that a language can work perfectly well without nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs, pre/postpositions or conjunctions; without active or passive; without subject-object relations; neither nominative/accusative nor ergative; with no word to translate "to be;" without singular/plural or gender; without tenses.

In phonology I wanted at least a couple of sounds not found in any natural language; also to have no sibilants; and to have an overall sound dominated by labial or labialised consonants, rather in the way that Arabic is dominated by sounds made at the back of the mouth. These are the consonants of Pkalho-Kölo in the traditional order:

pa - ma - pha -  pka - va - fha  -  pkwa - pwa -  pra - rla  -  ta - lha - tha  - ca - la  -  cwa - ya - fwa -  kwa - wa - hwa -   ka - na - ha

There are four unrounded vowels: a - ë - e - i         and four rounded vowels:  ä - ö - o - u.

(I have transferred the section on phonolgy and phonotactics to the document called Pkalho-Kölo 2; you will also find some scans of the language written in its own alphabet. I have also tranferred there a sample text in Latin letters.)

Now instead we begin with building-blocks grammar:

I. Orders

'''II. Subordinations'''

'''III. Mood'''

'''IV. Coordination'''

V. Demonstratives and Pronouns

'''VI. Indefinite Words'''

OK. The basic grammar of Pkalho-Kölo is as follows:

I. Orders

The first rule is that any unmarked word that precedes a word with a suffix, is a modifier. Long strings of modifiers are not uncommon.

The second rule is that the head word of any complete utterance is the first word with a suffix, and this will usually be one of nine Order suffixes, or one of seven Mood suffixes which replace them.

The first three Order suffixes are:

Stative:        -la

Active:        -rë

Habitual:      -mu

Pkalho-Kölo has no nouns or verbs: all the things we can speak about are phenomena, appearing and passing away. If we think of them as extended in space, we use the Stative; if as events occurring at a particular time, we use the Active; and if as events that occur predictably or usually, the Habitual. These are the three basic suffixes; all others are replacements for them.

Stative: kullu cilola - it is dark blue; mea phoäla - there are many flowers.

Active: hölki  pkaterë - (it) broke suddenly; hwicorë - there was a flash of lightning.

Habitual: mälho ëfwumu - it gets cold at night; tëmamu wehon, cäyumu cwilën - the sky grows dark, the stars grow bright.

These are all impersonal, neither transitive nor intransitive, neither active nor passive. So keila means “sees” or “is visible”; lhomirë means “dies”, “kills” or “is killed.”

The next three replace the stative suffix -la

Interrogative:     -wo

Conjectural:     -pwä

Concessive:     -ku

Interrogative forms questions: möiwo - is (he/she) asleep?; ëfwuwo - are you cold?.

Conjectural translates maybe, perhaps: möipwä - perhaps (he/she) is asleep; thulopwä - perhaps (he/she) has forgotten. (Conjectural is used in cases of doubt or hearsay: thähela melapwä pawë - there’s a rumour that you like (him/her).)

Concessive expresses surprise or an admission: ëfwuku - it’s so cold; yempaku - it's stupid, of course.

If we are talking about an event rather than a state, we add one of the other suffixes: pkateworë - did it break?; cännuwomu - do (they) (usually) sing?

The last three are:

Denominative:    -to

Conjunctive:     -yi

Resultative:      -pë

Denominative names or identifies things: pela cäilato - this is my friend; rliwa rluito tölwito - bamboo is a kind of grass.

Conjunctive refers back to the previous word with an Order suffix; it translates “and”: hwäivorë cännuyi - (they) danced and sang; lhurkarë hwicoyi - there was thunder and lightning.

Resultative describes the result of the previous word with an Order suffix: tepkurë pkatepë - (he) hit (it) so that it broke; ämrlola möipë - it was so warm (I) fell asleep.

'''II. Subordinations'''

Words that add information to a word with an Order suffix are said to be subordinated. There are nine Subordination suffixes, which are similar to a case system, but cases such as nominative, accusative and genitive are absent. There are no subject-object relations; instead, interrelations are modelled in a space/time that can be literal or metaphorical.

The first three Subordinations are:

Relative:        -n(i)

Allative:         -li

Ablative:        -hi

Relative expresses what could be described as inseparability: kullu cilola phoän - the flower is dark blue; pkeilu hwäivorë pwenyan - the boy danced gracefully. (The blueness can’t be separated from the flower or the dance from the boy.)

Allative marks destination or recipient: wipräli - to the woods; kwearë cälpan pali - (he) gave me a book.

Allative is also used for the locus of thoughts and perceptions: keila cilo phoän pali - I saw the blue flower(s); mathörë pwenyan rlupeli - the dog remembered the boy.

Ablative marks origin or originator: rloä tännuhi - from the mountain; pkaterë pwenyahi - the boy broke (it); ceirë pali apkohi - my older brother told me.

The next four specify location:

Locative:        -wë

Prolative:        -thu

Adessive:        -kö

Inessive:        -mä

Locative is for general location; often translates “at, by.” Toröwë - at the front; leawë - by the tree; cähe wilwawë - at the street-corner.

Locative is also used for the locus of knowledge or emotion: pamela lho pwenyan pawë - I know that boy; ëfwula yafhëyi pawë - I am cold and afraid.

It also marks the instrument of an action: cikorë hiwan kilviwë - (he/she) cut the rope with a knife.

Prolative marks location with regard to a line: often translates “along, through.” Tiltarë cähethu - (they) walked along the street; larirë pwahethu - (they) ran through the room.

It is also used for means of transport: leperë phawethu - (they) came here by boat.

Adessive marks location with regard to a surface: often translates “on.” Këula cälpan tällikö - the book is on the table; fwärerë pa näkekö - it settled on my hand. It also describes the place of impact: tepkurë pakö - (he/she) hit me; kipërë thuoläkö - (he/she) played (on) the harp.

Inessive marks ambient location in space or time: often translates “in.” Kaulomä - in the garden; cantomä - in the box; torllumä - in summer; vielomä - in the evening.

The last two are:

Partitive:        -vo

Directive:        -pkwe

Partitive is for the substance of something, or a part of something: torömä tämovon - in the front of the house (compare: toröwë tämohin - in front of the house); muirë nulhävo nuoyi rlucovo - (they) ate bread and drank wine.

It has a number of other uses: nouma kwilarë unovo - they talked for a long time about the children; yafhëla rlupevo cwëllewë - the little girl was afraid of the dog.

Directive marks orientation: thihupkwe - towards the north; proärë kilvin apkopkwe - (I) bought a knife for my older brother; keila cwean thilkopkwe - (I) can see a face in the mirror.

The relative suffix -ni is usually contracted to -n. In this form it links back to the previous word with any suffix, and it can be added to any other Subordination suffix. Këula tällikö - (it) is on the table. Këula cantomä tällikön - (it) is in the box (which is) on the table. (Note that there is no word to translate to be. When this means “to be in a place” the word këu. to find, is often used: “it can be found on the table.”) When the suffix is used is its full form, -ni, it links back to the previous word with an Order suffix.

Subordination suffixes replace the Stative -la, but it is perfectly normal for words describing events to be subordinated: you only need to add the Active or Habitual suffixes: Keila hwäivorën cwëllen pwenyali - the boy saw the girl dancing; këlphirë ilurën upherëmä - a ray of light pierced the forming clouds.

OK. That's enough for now.

Oh damn. Never mind, here we go.

'''III. Mood'''

Words with Order suffixes describe actual events; but there are also seven Mood suffixes that refer to unrealised possibilities, in the future, in hypothesis, in hopes or fears, etc. They all replace the active -rë.

Expective       -mö

Subjunctive     -kwä

Injunctive        -kë

Purposive       -phi

Hortative         -ru

Optative          -hwa

Apprehensive    -fhe

Expective is for events foreseen in the future: vuimö - it’s going to rain; ecwa nacwimö lhaun - they leave today; ilva lhapimö tuinarën tämon - they will soon finish building the house.

Subjunctive is for hypothetical situations: källekwä pahi - I would/could help (you); yöllikwä unohi - the children would cry; ceikwä atähi - (my) father would/could tell (you). Subjunctive is also used to make an offer/suggestion: letoukwä phieprun - shall (I) bring (you) your hairbrush?

Injunctive is for commands or instructions: cwipë lelhkokë - tie it up tightly; hikö tencurë - decide quickly; pkoäkë kepwän - take hold of the ladder.

Purposive expresses an intention, most often of the speaker, but sometimes of a third person: källephi - I’ll help (you); touphi phapren - I’ll bring a chair; proäphi köllan kumpreyin - I’ll buy strawberries and raspberries.

Hortative expresses a suggestion or recommendation, often including the speaker: nuoru rlucovo - let’s drink some wine; hwecaru cepron - better hide the money.

Optative is for wishes or hopes: talmehwa cäilon - I hope my friends will be safe; kwentohwa vuirën - I wish the rain would stop.

Apprehensive expresses fears, and is often used to give a warning: täpufhe - it’s going to fall over; pkatefhe - you’re going to break it; këfhefhe täivon - look out, you’ll rip the material.

More soon.

-

Right. We're off again.

'''IV. Coordination'''

Words that end in one of the last three Order suffixes, and link to another word with an Order or Mood suffix are said to be Coordinated.

The Denominative -to added to other suffixes creates suspended forms waiting for completion: Minlölato wafwula - It was so complicated I was amazed. Varerëto thuomä nallurë - I was late so I sat at the back.

With the second three Orders:

Pkirewo?- Is it shut? Pkirewoto letouphi kilwen - If it’s shut I’ll go and get the key.

Möipwä - Perhaps (they’re) asleep. Möipwäto lilkwä tiltakë cäin - If they should be asleep, walk quietly.

Ëfwuku - It's so cold. Ëfwukuto hwöpe kwomala pakö - Although it’s cold I am lightly dressed.

Each of the Mood suffixes can take the Denominative -to, and sometimes the Resultative -pë, to create coordinated clauses expressing the interactions between actual events and unrealised possibilities in the domain of expectation, instruction, intention, hope and so on. To list all the possibilities would be tedious, but below are a few examples:

Lantikwäto pälukö keimö kuphin - If you climb the hill you will be able to see the ocean

Lillä tiltakë virofheto ninyön - Walk very quietly or you’ll wake the baby.

Ölvu keriruto lincwa lhapimö - If we begin straightaway we’ll be finished tomorrow

Lhapimöto muriköila - When you're finished you can go home

Kwärvakë rlupen lucemöpë mimwen - Chase away the dog so the cat will come out

Enkwaphi vëllun capkwe kwentokëto yöllirën - I will read you a story provided you stop crying

Pkammärë mofhën pahi elma ämrlohwato cäin - I have banked up the fire so that you will be warm in the morning

-

OK, let’s continue with caveman methods. What are we up to? Oh right.

V. Demonstrative and Pronouns.

There are six demonstratives:

Neutral 1: Reference forward: e

Neutral 2: Reference back: o

Proximate 1: Near speaker: pe

Proximate 2: Near person spoken to: ce

Distant 1: First mentioned: lho

Distant 2: Next mentioned: yo

The demonstratives frequently take Order suffixes: pela - it’s here; look!; lhola it’s there; look!; lepekë - come here; hepekë - go away; ela - the following is the case; ola - what came before is the case; yes.

The neutral demonstratives play an important role in the grammar of Pkalho-Kölo, being used, among other things, to create relative clauses. But more about that later.

As in Japanese, pronouns are omitted unless this would cause ambiguity. Unlike Japanese, however, Pkalho-Kölo has a full set of personal pronouns: (It would be nice to have a table, but I've had several goes without success. Sigh.)

First person singular : pa

Second person singular : ca

First person dual : exclusive : apë

First person dual : inclusive : epka

Second person dual : acë

First person plural : exclusive : päi

First person plural : inclusive : pkei

Second person plural : cäi

Third person singular : lhu

Fourth person singular : yu

Third person dual : exclusive : olha

Third person dual : inclusive : ulle

Fourth person dual : oya

Third person plural : exclusive : lhau

Third person plural : inclusive : ui

Fourth person plural : yau

The fourth person, as in the Algonquian languages, is simply used to distinguish one person or group spoken of first from another spoken of next, so as to avoid the ambiguity of sentences like: “He asked him how well he had known her before his marriage.” The exclusive/inclusive distinction in the dual and plural in the same way clears up sentences like: “He asked him if they were going to go with them.”

Pronouns are only used to refer to people, animals, and anything regarded as person-like. After the singular pronouns the allative -li is usually reduced to -l except at the end of a phrase.

'''VI. Indefinite Words'''

Indefinite words form a small closed class of words with a number of uses. There are 12.

au    something; what?

mäi    someone; who?

pea    somewhere; where?

kui    at some time; when?

hwea    in some way; how?

pwea    by some means; how?

rlui    some kind of; what kind of?

toä    a number of; how many?

voä    some; how much?

wei    one particular; which?

pruo    one of two; which?

phiu    for some reason; why?

The meaning differs depending on which Order they follow:

Stative: Keila mäi - (I) see someone

Interrogative: Keiwo mäi? - Can you see anyone?

Concessive: Keiku mäi? - Who can you see?

Likewise when they are used by themselves:

Mäila - Someone is there/here

Mäiwo? - Is there someone there?

Mäiku? - Who’s there?

Those referring to time, place, manner, reason, obviously appear more often in questions. They can be used as modifiers, or with a Subordination suffix:

Pwea pkälëtäkumu höpin? - How do ants communicate with each other?

Veakumö lapkwan mäili? - Who will win the prize?

They can also introduce the answer to a question:

Phiu kwomaku palkon? - Phiula lucehöiphin.

Why are you wearing a coat? - Because I’m just about to go out.

With the neutral demonstratives e and o:

Horula ephiun hölki nacwikurë lhaun - I don’t understand why they suddenly left

Hunyëla epean paltokuphi lhaun oli - I don’t know where they went to go shopping

Indefinite words can also be used as modifiers with another word, as follows:

Nolwu voä kapula thelkan - The rock was as big as an elephant

Cwilpwi hwea ëfwula pawë - I feel as cold as an icicle

Cillö rlui phoäla - There were flowers similar to jasmine

All indefinite words form compounds with the demonstratives. In the case of au an “r” is inserted: perau, cerau, lhorau, yorau. These words translate “this” and “that”, and are used rather than pronouns in referring to inanimate objects. In the same way, pepea, lhopea, perlui, lhorlui, pephiu, lhophiu, mean here, there, this kind of, that kind of, for this reason, for that reason.

It takes time to learn how to work with four demonstratives rather than the two we have in English. With reference to time, cekui relates to the person spoken to, and so to the immediate past: what you have said; pekui to the speaker, and so the immediate future: what I am about to say. Lhokui refers to a more remote past, yokui to a more remote future.

Indefinite words also form compounds with other words in which, unexpectedly, the modifier comes after the head-word: au nipro - precious things; au hurkwo - things promised; au vihwë - things wished for, etc. Likewise: mäi pame - people you know; acquaintances; mäi lhema - people you don’t know, strangers.

If more than one word is used the word order reverts to normal: hwea pelu - ways of writing; but rlipu  pelu hwea - ways of writing letters (of the alphabet).

On Pkalho-Kölo 3:

'''VII. Directional Prefixes A'''

'''VIII. Directional Prefixes B'''

'''IX. Directional Prefixes C'''

X. Inversions

'''XI. More About the Conjunctive'''

'''XII. More About Neutral Demonstratives'''

Right. I'm going to add (I hope) two pages of Pkalho-Kölo in its own writing system. These were written a couple of years ago and the language has changed slightly since then, but the writing system hasn't changed.

(I would like to get rid of these things but don't know how to.