Balearic Hebrew

Balearic Hebrew verbs, like other verbs in Semitic languages, are based on sets of three to four (most commonly three) consonants called a root. Biblical two-letter roots have generally been re-analyzed with the doubling of the first or last letter to form a traditional triliteral root. The root conveys the basic meaning of each verb, for example k-t-b "write." Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with a series of prefixes and suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as valency, mood, tense, person, gender, and number.

Such categories marked on verbs:


 * Two tenses (present, past; future tense is indicated primarily with the present tense and various contextual markers)
 * Four voices (active, passive, causative, reflexive)
 * Two genders (masculine, feminine)
 * Three persons (first, second, third)
 * Two numbers (singular, plural)
 * Three moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)

Unlike English (but similar to other languages such as Spanish), verbs in Balearic Hebrew do not require a separate personal pronoun if the subject is not identified; this is because the form of the verb itself includes the subject.

Hebrew grammarians typically use the root f-g-l (do, make) to demonstrate the particular shape of any specific category of a verbal paradigm. In this article, the illustrative root is k-t-b.

Inflectional categories
Each particular verb is specified by four stems, called binyanim, a term borrowed from modern Hebrew meaning construction. Each binyan is the pattern of a specific verb as it is inflected for tense, mood, and most generally voice. These binyanim showcase typical Semitic nonconcatenative morphology, in which a series of vowel templates and affixes are inserted in each triliteral (or sometimes biliteral or more rarely, quadriliteral) root. Of the Biblical Hebrew seven templates, only four survive in Balearic Hebrew.

Tense
There are two tenses in Balearic Hebrew: the past preterite tense, and the present tense. The past tense is a direct descendant of the Biblical Perfect suffixing conjugation.

Mood
There are three moods in Balearic Hebrew. These are the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. The indicative mood is the only mood with two tenses, as the subjunctive does not inflect for tense. The imperative is only productive for affirmative commands in the second person, and unlike the other moods, has no gender distinction in its conjugation. Negative commands are formed with a conjunction, negating particle, and the subjunctive.

The subjunctive is used in that-clauses, and generally as a conditional or precative. It is a descendant of the Biblical prefixing conjugation, which previously conveyed only aspect.

Voice
Balearic Hebrew uses the binyanim system to encode voice. The language employs a rich and varied system of voice, with a productive inflected passive binyan, and three active ones. The Biblical reflexive binyan, hitpa'el (התפעל) was lost in favor of a pronominal reflexive, similar to the novel Romance constructions developing in close contact

Regular Verbs
The system of verb conjugations in Balearic Hebrew has many complications. In this table is outlined the conjugation of a regular verb, k-t-b in all four binyanim for the 3rd person masculine singular. Many verbs in Biblical Hebrew which were classified as "hollow" have been regularized in Balearic Hebrew, its direct descendant. However, many weak roots remain. Regular verbs in Balearic Hebrew constitute basic, triliteral roots with three non-"weak" consonants. Weak consonants are This table demonstrates the variability and malleability of the Balearic Hebrew root.

Here is a table outlining the indicative for one of the stems, qal for the verb k-t-b "to write." As is visible in the chart, verbs conjugate for person, gender, and number. The 3rd person plural has no gender distinction, an innovation from Biblical Hebrew.

The present and preterite stems appear identical, except the present has a prefix lū added. The present tense is a Balearic innovation, and is likely the result of the grammaticalization of the helping verb הלך onto the Sequential Perfect waw-consecutive construction, reduced to only a prefix now.

Binyan Qal
Binyan qal (a Biblical word meaning "light") is the most common construction for a verb. These verbs are in the active voice, and are only formed with three-letter roots.

This construction is also very productive for loanwords, whose conjugations are based off this construction and the similar piel construction.

D-stem
This construction consists of typically transitive verbs in the active voice. It is very flexible in meaning. It is called the "D-stem" since the second letter of the root is doubled.

The D-stem is considered an intensifying construction. For example, while k-t-b in its qal paradigm means "write," in this paradigm it means "engrave" or "inscribe."

H-stem
This construction is an active causative construction. While English relies on helping verbs such as "cause" to express when the subject is causing the object to perform a verbal action, such a situation is expressed through a construction in Balearic Hebrew. For example, k-t-b in this construction means "dictate," as in causing someone to write something.

This stem typically has an h- prefix, hence its name.

N-stem
This is the only passive verbal stem formation in Balearic Hebrew. It expresses passivity for the qal and D-stem constructions. Certain verbs are only functional in this construction, especially ones that express stative action or some sort of middle voice untranslateable in English.

This stem typically has an n- prefix, hence its name.

Reflexive stem
In Balearic Hebrew, reflexive verbs are very flexible, with all D-stem verbs having a reflexive counterpart. It is generally used for situations when the subject, instead of performing an action on another complement, performs this action on itself. Another more idiomatic use is a kind of middle voice, most common in the descriptions of actions with body parts. For example, "your eyes open" would be translated with the reflexive voice. Reciprocal voice and reflexive voice are also identical in Balearic Hebrew, whereas English distinguishes the phrase "they tell each other" with "they tell themselves." These two meanings are grammatically indistinguishible in Balearic Hebrew.

The reflexive stem in Balearic Hebrew is an insular innovation, resulting from Latin influence. What was previously another construction, the so-called hitpael, was lost and relexified in favor of Latin-based pronominal verb forms. The conjugation is essentially the D-stem verb with a Latin affix, these affixes descending from Latin accusative personal pronouns. These affixes in Balearic Hebrew are: In the preterite tense and in the imperative these affixes are prefixes. But, In the present and subjunctive they suffix but are pronounced in reverse. For example, the first person plural reflexive subjunctive for the verb k-t-b is nikatib-on, with the prefix form reversed to avoid a consonant cluster.

Infinitive
The infinitive of a verb has many uses in Balearic Hebrew. In this section, only the conjugation and formation of the infinitive will be discussed.

Depending on the stem of the verb, the infinitive has different vowel formations. The Latin-based reflexive form seems to derive from the Classical gerund form.

Participle
Like the infinitive, the participle is a very versatile non-finite verb form. However, in this section only its formation will be discussed.

Participle conjugate for gender and number. The only participle in Balearic Hebrew is passive in meaning, likely as a result of Latin influence. Verbs of the D-stem will reform to the qal construction for a participle.

Weak roots
Weak roots are what grammarians call Semitic irregular verbs. These roots, while less numerous than the weak or hollow roots of Biblical Hebrew, have undergone several sound changes and regularization which still makes them a hazard for new learners. Roots containing so-called "weak" letters influence the sounds of their surrounds, and therefore their patterns must be given specific attention. The weak root is classified in five different categories based on the position of these weak sounds.


 * 3rd Alef
 * 3rd He
 * 3rd Chet
 * 1st Chet
 * 1st Nun or Lamed
 * 1st Yod
 * 3rd Stop

The first three categories, categorized by a guttural as the third letter of a verbal root, cause gemination in the verbal affix nearby. For example, the 2nd person feminine singular qal preterite construction of the root h-r-h, to be pregnant, is hūratti, instead of the ungrammatical *hūrahti. This gemination occurs not only with the affixes, but also to the other parts of the root. In addition, these consonants cause a vowel change from <ū> to  always. Other vowels are unaffected. For example, using the same verb but in the 3rd person, the construction is horra, instead of expected *hūrha. In the case of a final /h/, it always drops.

The fourth category, 1st Chet, causes vowel change, and/or gemination in the paradigm. The vowel immediately preceding and following this letter is always /a/. Thus, ħ-b-š, meaning to cover a wound, in the masculine 3rd person singular qal subjunctive is yabbūš, instead of expected *yiħbūš. Here, the vowel is changed from  to , and the  2nd radical consonant is geminated as the first is lost.

The fifth category, 1st Nun or Lamed, causes vowel changes in the subjunctive and imperative conjugations, as well as in the H-stem and N-stem. In these instances, where some sort of prefix is attached to the verb radical, the /n/ or /l/ of the verb root drops and causes vowel changes. Like the 1st Chet irregulars, the vowel is almost always changed to an /a/. In the N-stem construction, the /a/ is conserved. For example, the root l-h-ṭ, menaing to burn, in the 3rd person masculine singular H-stem preterite is halhīṭ, instead of expected *hīlhīṭ. Unlike the 1st Chet category, the present marker lū is never changed by these irregularities.

The six category, 1st Yod, causes vowel changes. The /j/ drops out of the stem as well. If the preceding vowel is , it is changed to . If it is <ū>, it is changed to . Thus, the first person singular N-stem preterite of the verb y-t-r, to be useless, is notartī, instead of expected *natartī.

The last category, verbs that have the stops /t/, /d/, /k/, or /g/ as their last letter, cause only gemination. These stops drop out of the stem but cause the consonant immediately following them to geminate in compensation. For example, the root b-r-g, meaning to create, in the second masculine singular qal preterite form is būratta, instead of expected *būragta.

Foreign Verbs
Due to its proximity to various non-Semitic languages, the most influential being Latin, Balearic Hebrew has a radically different verbal system than its Semitic relatives, and its mother language of pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Many Latin verbs have made their way into the language via two major ways: one, adapting Latin verbs to the phonetic and grammatical constrictions of nonconcatenative morphology, and two, the introduction of various calques.

The Semitic verbal model incorporates foreign verbs by constructing a triliteral root from the concatenative root typical of Latin or another non-Semitic language. These words typically deal with such topics as commerce, war, and diplomacy. For example, the Latin word trādere became loaned into Balearic Hebrew with the abstracted root t-r-d, also meaning to surrender, in the qal construction.

Since most speakers of Balearic Hebrew are monolingual speakers, this loan system never broke down. In Balearic Hebrew there is no alternate paradigm for verbs of European origin, as there is in Maltese, for example.

For words which are more difficult to loan into a Semitic language, a loan translation system has been developed. For example, the Balearic Hebrew verb g-b-r, meaning to go (across), also has the meaning "to translate," a word calqued from Latin transferre, meaning to carry across.

The Infinitive
The infinitive emphasizes the idea of the verb by expressing its intensity or certainty. It speaks of the action without regard to the subject or the tense and mood of the verb. In this way, it functions as an adverb, a main verb, a verbal complement, or even a noun at times.

Future Certainty and Commands
In most cases, the infinitive is coupled with a finite verb of the same root. In this context, the infinitive acts as an adverb emphasizing the action of the main verb, or to define it more accurately. The infinitive most often precedes the verb it modifies. This construction is semantically very similar to the Spanish non-periphrastic future tense, and in Balearic Hebrew is a way to convery future time and a kind of command, prohibition, or obligation. For example, the phrase mūtot ʔamtūt, with the qal infinitive and the subjuntive of the root m-t-t, meaning to die, means "I will surely die." This construction is always used with the subjunctive and the infintive.

The infintive can also function as an emphatic or emotive command for an unspecified group of people. For example, from the root s-k-r, meaning to remember, comes the form sūkor, meaning "remember," with the intended listener being of an unknown number or for a general large community.

Descriptive Infinitive
In the case where an infinitive is paired with a verb of a different root, an English translation requires some sort of circumstantial clause, or the preposition "by" to define more exactly the manner in which the action is performed. This use supplants the now inexistent active participle of Biblical Hebrew. For example, using the roots d-b-r (to say), and the root ʔ-l-h (to swear), the phrase dībbirū ʔūlo, meaning they said (swearing) is most accurately translated as "they said by swearing" or "they promised."

In the case of an infinitive acting as a circumstantial clause, various prepositions will clarify the time when, after, before, until, or during.

Interestingly, Biblical Hebrew used the infinitive of the verb h-l-k to show continuous action. This infinitive grammaticalized as the prefix lū on the also archaic waw-consecutive of the Biblical suffix conjugation, forming the Balearic present tense. Here is an example of the semantic evolution of this construction:


 * BH: hālok w-šāpaṭ = (walking) and he will judge
 * Intermediate stage: ūlok wišūpaṭ = he will be going and judging
 * Balearic Hebrew: lū-šūpaṭ = he judges / he is judging / he will judge

The use of h-l-k to show progressive action is not common in Balearic Hebrew.

Infinitive Noun
As a noun, the infinitive acts very similarly to the Spanish infinitive. It is always singular and there is no definite article placed upon it. If these infinitive nouns were to have a complement, there is no accusative marker placed on it. For example, the phrase "eating meat," uses the infinitive as the subject, with the object of the infinitive being meat. This phrase is translated as ʔūkol būšūr, with the root ʔ-k-l, meaning "to eat." The infinitive noun can also be the object of a main verb, similar to the use of the infinitive in Spanish phrases such as me gusta comer, "I like to eat." It is likely that this use, very rare in Biblical Hebrew, became more common on the islands due to Romance influence.

The Participle and the verbal noun
Balearic Hebrew only makes use of a passive participle. This participle occupies the middle place between a noun and a verb. In essence, they are most commonly used as adjectives and therefore do not conjugate for tense or mood. However, unlike pure adjectives, participles deal with action and activity. It indicates the person or thing in a state which has been brought about by external action.

The participle almost always corresponds to a Latin perfect passive participle, or to the Latin gerundive (or verbal adjectives ending in -bilis, -e). Such verbal adjectives indicate a capacity or worth of being acted upon. To exemplify, the root b-r-k, meaning to bless, has the participle miborūk, which can either mean "(having been) blessed," "necessary/worthy to be blessed," or "(which is) to be blessed." Such uses of the participle are most similar to adjectives, and these participles can either be in the attributive or predicative position.

Additionally, these adjectival participles can function as a verbal complement governed by the main verb of the sentence. Thus, it is translated according to the time of the main verb. While Balearic Hebrew uses one participle to express this idea, and English or Spanish approximation would be a relative clause. EXAMPLE.

As a verb, participles can govern an entire clause, acting as a main verb. These verbal participles can express continuous, habitual, or stative action as fixed by context. Typically, participles acting as a main verb will be at the beginning of the phrase, as if it were a VSO word order for a finite verb. EXAMPLE.

Like finite verbs, participle can also take an object.

The Verbal Noun
Finally, a participle can take a definite article and function as a noun. This use is somewhat productive for noun formation, and a similar process occurs in Spanish. For example, the Spanish word comida, food, is the feminine singular passive participle of the verb comer. In Balearic Hebrew, these nominal participles almost always require a definite article. EXAMPLe