Sukika

Setting
Sukika, also called Tuggish, Tuggigga or Ravumi, is a language isolate, found in the mountainous regions of Drion's North continent. It is an agglutinant language, with some traces of polisynthesis.

Pronunciation
The Sukika have a particular manner of speaking, with a harsh voice which generally sounds like if the speaker has got a cold or has burnt the tongue. Stress has no active role in the language, as all syllables receive similar stress. Tone is not distinctive, although in some dialects it is used to express general states of mind (agreement, resignation &c.)

Vowels
Sukika has simple five vowels:
 * a
 * e
 * i
 * o
 * u

pronounced more or less like in Italian or Spanish. Each vowel corresponds to a syllable, even when they appear together. Double vowels (aa for example) are, actually, a sequence of two vowels, each in a separated syllable.

Consonants and Semivowels
Sukika consonants are:
 * p/bb/mb/f (see below)
 * t/dd/nd/s (see below)
 * k/gg/ng/sh (see below)
 * l/r (see below)
 * m
 * n
 * h
 * ´ (like Arabic Hamzah)

Semivowels are:
 * y
 * w

Allophony
Phonetically, one the main characteristics of the language is the strong allophony involving the elementary stops p, t and k. In most dialects these stops occur only in the beginning of a syllable, but only when it is preceded by another consonant. At the end of a syllable these stops are realized as sibilants or fricatives (respectively f, s and sh), and between vowels they are realized as voiced doubled consonants (respectively bb, dd and gg). Together with a nasal (m or n) they are realized as mb, nd and ng. So, for instance, the number "three", which is originally yupkatuk, is, in most dialects, actually spoken as yufkaddush.

The sounds r and l are also allophonic variants.

So, considering "a" as a sample vowel, we get the following realizations for each of the archiphonemes:
 * P: pabbambaf
 * T: taddandas
 * K: kaggangash
 * L: lallar

Initial and final realizations may change according to the addition of prefixes or suffixes.

Phonotactics
Syllables in Sukika have the structure: (C)V(C), that is, an obligatory vowel that may be preceded and/or followed by one consonant. No more than two consonants can come together in the middle of a word.

Metathesis
The sound changes in Sukika go beyond simple allophony. Metathesis occurs as well, when one consonant of the mentioned group (p, t, k) comes together with a liquid (l), an aspirated (h) or with a nasal (m or n). In these cases, the liquid, aspirated or nasal must always come first, with l changing to r (semi-retroflex) and the nasals being realized as m with p and as n with the other two. The three consonants themselves are not changed with the liquid and the aspirated, but are realized as voiced consonants when joined to a nasal. So we get:
 * p + l or l + p -> rp
 * t + l or l + t -> rt
 * k + l or l + k -> rk
 * p + h or h + p -> hp
 * t + h or h + t -> ht
 * k + h or h + k -> hk
 * p + m or m + p -> mb
 * t + m or m + t -> nd
 * k + m or m + k -> ng
 * p + n or n + p -> mb
 * t + n or n + t -> nd
 * k + n or n + k -> ng

These changes occur always when a suffix or prefix is added to a word, or when two roots are joined to make a composite stem.

Nouns
Nouns have a very complex declension system, considering the various sound changes that happen when adding affixes to a stem. Number, case, possession and definiteness are indicated by means of suffixes.

Declension
The suffixes come in the following order: [stem] [number] [case] [definiteness/possession]

The suffixes of definiteness and possession are mutually excluding, that is, you can not use suffixes of both classes together.

Examples

 * tumbais+ik+in = tumbaiddiggin "because of the high temperature"
 * iddewar+tu+lu = iddewartullu "with this book"
 * iddewar+nu+tu+lu = iddewarnuddullu "with these books"
 * iddeggay+ik+ik = iddeggayiggish "from your house"
 * iddeggay+ku+yu = iddeggaykuyu "in my house"
 * iheggafku iddeggay+hul+huk = iheggafku iddeggayhuhlush "in front of our house"
 * puggoggi+yu+in = puggoggiyuin "to her family"
 * illebbaf+it+ik+in = illebbabbiddiggin "according to his words"

Full Declension
Let's use the word iwenash "car" (base iwenak) to illustrate the use of nominal suffixes.

Derivation
There are still some other suffixes that, not having any grammatical function, are used to express differences or modifications in the original meaning of the root.
 * Diminutive: -nun- (equivalent to the use of the attributive adjective "small" or "little")
 * Augmentative: -to- (equivalent to the use of the attributive adjective "big", "large" or "great")
 * Pejorative: -len- (equivalent to the use of the attributive adjective "bad" or "evil")
 * Meliorative: -neh- (equivalent to the use of the attributive adjective "beautiful" or "good")
 * Degradative: -kel- (equivalent to the use of the attributive adjective "ancient" or "old")

These suffixes are added directly to the word root, before any other suffixes, thus forming a new word with the normal nominal flexion.

E.g.:
 * iwenangun "small car"
 * iwenashto "large car"
 * iwenarken "bad car"
 * iwenangeh "good car"
 * iwenagger "old car"
 * iwenangurnu "this small car"
 * iwenangehyu "my good car"
 * iwenaggellish "your old car"

Analisis

 * ihellaggush "friend"
 * ihellagguk-neh-nu-yu-yu -> ihellaggungehnuyuyu "to my good friends"
 * iddeggay-nun-ku-um -> iddeggaynunguum "in their (small) house"
 * kubboddim-neh-it-tu-ik -> kubboddimnehidduish "with your (many) good ideas"

Adjectives
Adjectives have no form of agreement with nouns. Attributive adjectives come before nouns, and in some dialects they actually form compound words with nouns. Some elementary attributes (see above) are expressed by means of derivational suffixes.


 * iweddawuf yuddongushpa "native tongue", in some dialects realized as iweddawup-yuddongushpa
 * ihellabbuf nuddaggeor "true love", in some dialects realized as ihellabbum-buddaggeor

Comparison
Degrees of comparison in adjectives are formed by means of suffixes:
 * Comparative of superiority ("more ... "): -mey
 * Comparative of inferiority ("less ... "): -ihno
 * Comparative of equality ("as ... "): -luh
 * Superlative of superiority ("the most ..."): -lap
 * Superlative of inferiority ("the least ..."): -mol

Examples:
 * iyepaw tukwan "a cheap (piece of) clothe"
 * iyepawmey tukwan "a cheaper (piece of) clothe"
 * iyepawihno tukwan "a not so cheap (piece of) clothe"
 * iyepawluh tukwan (ish) "a (piece of) clothe as cheap (as)"
 * iyepawlaf tukwan "the cheapest (piece of) clothe"
 * iyepamwor tukwan "the least cheap (piece of) clothe"
 * iggellar iddewar "an expensive book"
 * iggellarmey iddewar "a more expensive book"
 * iggellallihno iddewar "a not so expensive book"
 * iggellalluh iddewar (ish) "a book as expensive (as)"
 * iggellallaf iddewar "the most expensive book"
 * iggellarmor iddewar "the lest expensive book"

Personal
The short forms are used with case endings and when there is no emphasis. The longer forms are used without case endings and carry an emphatic meaning. The special forms are a kind of honorific, used only in very polite or religious language and expressing a high degree of respect.

Possessive
Possession is indicated by means of possessive suffixes (see above). The genitive form of the short pronouns may be used for emphasis:
 * (puhush) ihellaggukyu "my friend"

Cardinal

 * 0: puddo; indo
 * 1: ihenan
 * 2: yuggo; ifko
 * 3: yufkaddush; iggeski
 * 4: puggoni
 * 5: iggerwi
 * 6: puesh
 * 7: purkarte
 * 8: iw´oyif
 * 9: iwmosh
 * 10: ineham
 * 11: ihenanigges
 * 12: yuggoigges; ifkoigges
 * 13: yufkadduggigges; iggeskiigges
 * 14: puggoniigges
 * 15: iggerwiigges
 * 16: pueggigges
 * 17: purkarteigges
 * 18: iw´oyibbigges
 * 19: iwmoggigges
 * 20: ibbeggash
 * 30: iggeyaw
 * 40: purwah
 * 50: pubbos
 * 60: nuehar
 * 70: puddoshpun
 * 80: iggehash
 * 90: luddobbur
 * 100: tumbaddur
 * 200: ifkoddumbaddur
 * 300: iggeskiddumbaddur
 * 400: puggoniddumbaddur
 * 500: iggerwiddumbaddur
 * 600: pueshtumbaddur
 * 700: purkarteddumbaddur
 * 800: iw´oyiftumbaddur
 * 900: iwmoshtumbaddur
 * 1,000: ibbehas
 * 2,000: ifkoibbehas
 * 3,000: iggeskiibbehas &c.

Ordinal
Ordinal numbers are created by adding the suffix -kan to the cardinal numbers:
 * 1st: ihenangan
 * 2nd: yuggoggan; ifkoggan
 * 3rd: yufkadduggan; iggeskiggan
 * 4th: puggoniggan
 * 5th: iggerwiggan &c.

Verbs
Verbs in Ravumi receive prefixes and suffixes indicating various grammatical categories as time, aspect, person, number and transitiveness.

Aspect
Aspect is indicated by means of suffixes:
 * Stative: -ki-
 * Durative: -na-
 * Perfective: -le-
 * Aorist: -tut-
 * Frequentative: -hek-
 * Inchoative: -won-

Time
Time suffixes come after aspect suffixes:
 * Past: -ten-
 * Present: -a-
 * Future: -mu-

Object
Direct object is indicated by means of suffixes:
 * 1st person sing. -el-
 * 2nd person sing. -at-
 * 3rd person sing. -uf-
 * 1st person pl. -po-
 * 2nd person pl. -ten-
 * 3rd person pl. -um-

While indirect objects are indicated by means of the same forms, but used as prefixes:
 * 1st person sing. el-
 * 2nd person sing. at-
 * 3rd person sing. uf-
 * 1st person pl. po-
 * 2nd person pl. ten-
 * 3rd person pl. um-

These indirect object prefixes come before any other possible prefixes.

Subject
The subject suffixes are always the last element in a verb.
 * 1st person sing. -uh
 * 2nd person sing. -at
 * 3rd person sing. -a
 * 1st person pl. -ol
 * 2nd person pl. -ow
 * 3rd person pl. -to

Derivation
Some prefixes are added to change the base meaning of the root:
 * "again", "re-": to-
 * "many times": kel-
 * "for the first time": pon-
 * "unwillingly": lit-
 * "make" (causative): kot-
 * "can" (ability): map-

Meaning of Aspects and Times
Here is an explanation about the meaning of each aspect+time combination of suffixes.
 * Present
 * Stative Present Tense (-kia-): "I am sitting", "She looks good"
 * Durative Present Tense (-naa-): "I am working", "She is waiting"
 * Perfective Present Tense (-lea-): "I just ate", "He is dead"
 * Aorist Present Tense (-tudda-): "I have already seen it once", "She has just called for her mom"
 * Frequentative Present Tense (-hegga-): "I always eat there", "She keeps calling you"
 * Inchoative Present Tense (-wona- ): "I get to work now", "It is starting to rain"
 * Past
 * Stative Past Tense (-kidden-): "I was sitting", "She looked good"
 * Durative Past Tense (-nadden-): "I was working", "She has been waiting"
 * Perfective Past Tense (-ledden-): "I had just eaten", "He had died dead"
 * Aorist Past Tense (-tudden-): "I had already seen it before", "She had called for her mom"
 * Frequentative Past Tense (-heshten-): "I used to eat there", "She kept calling you"
 * Inchoative Past Tense (-wonden- ): "I got to work then", "It was starting to rain"
 * Future
 * Stative Present Tense (-kimu-): "I will be sitting", "She is going to look good"
 * Durative Present Tense (-namu-): "I will be working", "She will wait for some time"
 * Perfective Present Tense (-lemu-): "I will already have eaten", "He is going to be dead"
 * Aorist Present Tense (-tundu-): "You will already have seen it once", "She will have put it somewhere"
 * Frequentative Present Tense (-hengu-): "I will always love you", "She is going to call you lots of times"
 * Inchoative Present Tense (-wonmu- ): "I will get to work in two hours", "It will start raining in a few minutes"

Sample Conjugation
An example of the use of direct object suffixes (these come before the subject suffixes):
 * nuddoynumbaaelluh "I am seeing myself"
 * nuddoynumbaaadduh "I am seeing you (sg.)"
 * nuddoynumbaaubbuh "I am seeing him/her/it"
 * nuddoynumbaabbouh "I am seeing us"
 * nuddoynumbaaddenuh "I am seeing you (pl.)"
 * nuddoynumbaaumuh "I am seeing them"

Other examples:
 * Verb root: nuddoynuf (base: nutoynup)
 * nutoynup-na-a-uh -> nuddoynumbaauh "I am seeing"
 * nutoynup-ki-a-uh -> nuddoynfkiauh "I see (I am a living being with the ability to see)"
 * nutoynup-le-a-uf-uh -> nuddoynurpeaubbuh "I have seen it" ("I have the experience of having seen it")
 * nutoynup-tut-mu-el-at -> nuddoynuftunduellas "you shall see me (once, definitely)"
 * at-kot-nutoynup-tut-mu-uf-uh -> askonduddoynuftunduubbuh "I will show it to you"
 * Verb root: nuddash (base: nuttak)
 * nuttak-ki-a-at-uh -> nuddaggiaadduh "I love you"
 * Verb root: pubbomir (base: pupomil)
 * to-pupomil-le-mu-uf-a -> tobbubbomillemuubba "he will bring it again"
 * Verb root: turnagguf (base: tunlakup)
 * map-tunlakup-na-a-ten-uh -> mafturnaggumbaaddenuh "I can help you now"
 * kel-tunlakup-hek-a-el-to -> kerturnagguhpeggaerto "they always help me"
 * lit-tunlakup-ki-a-at-a -> liddurnaggufkiaadda "he is helping you against his will"
 * Verb root: imboh (base: impoh)
 * impoh-le-a-uf-a -> imbohleaubba "he has broken it"

Sample Derivation

 * tonuddoynuf "see again"
 * kernuddoynuf "see many times"
 * ponnuddoynuf "see for the first time"
 * lisnuddoynuf "unwillingly see"
 * konduddoynuf "cause (someone) to see"
 * mambuddoynuf "can see"

Word Order
Sukika is basically a SVO language, but word order is somewhat flexible, due to the extensive use of suffixes establishing the relation of the words.

Pronoun suffixes
As a rule, subject and object pronouns must be used, even when subject and object are explicitly used. E.g., in Ihtobbiddin ubbimemadduddenubba nuemahu lumnadduhyuin, "The boy wrote a letter to his grandmother", we have the verb imemas "to write" in the Past Perfective form imemaddudden "wrote". It has the indirect object prefix uf- (referring to lumnadduhyuin "to his grandmother") as well as the direct object suffix -uf- (referring to nuemahu "a letter"), together with the subject suffix -a (referring to ihtobbiddin "the boy"). Anyway, in some dialects, the object affixes may be left out in spoken language, so it is also possible to say Ihtobbiddin imemadduddena nuemahu lumnadduhyuin with the same meaning.

Vocabulary
Sukika is known for its rich vocabulary. There are many cases in which a single English word can be translated by several Sukika words, according to slight nuances in meaning. Sometimes a word is used only in specific environments, while other words with basically the same meaning are used in others. It is related that, for some words, even native speakers themselves are unable to explain why they choose one word and not another one.

Here go some examples:
 * "star" may be:
 * pumobbus (used specificly in astronomy, meaning "a sun", "the nucleus of a solar system")
 * iyeddas (visible stars at night)
 * puhkaske (reserved for large bright stars)
 * nuhka (reserved for visibly blinking stars)
 * puey (mythical and figurative sense, like in "destiny star" or also "rock star")


 * "uncle" may be:
 * ibbeman, ibbemar "father's brother"
 * puggosh "mother's brother"
 * puyta (indefinite relationship, can be anything like "an older friend of the family", "an elder cousin")
 * imboyim "father's or mother's brother-in-law"


 * "fear" may be:
 * pueynih ("light fear")
 * pu´ownu ("terror", "horror")
 * in´ongu (undetermined specificity)
 * pumof (undetermined specificity)
 * puhka (undetermined specificity)


 * "document" may be:
 * illeddaw (personal documents)
 * mubboy (ownership documents for an object, e.g. a car)
 * mues (documentation for a company)
 * ´uyos (documentation for a process)
 * iddebban (undetermined specificity, may also be used instead of illeddaw)
 * muyoddir (generic, undefinite)


 * "medicine" may be:
 * pukya (natural medicine, e.g. leaves or oils)
 * yuwom´ur (pills)
 * yuyo (solution, e.g., a powder dissoluted in water)
 * puyohtu (creams, ointment, used on the skin)
 * yukyante (injection &c.)
 * yuef (undetermined specificity)

Example text

 * "Tuhos tuggospuillin ispobbilleaddo iherwih, ´ueshpiiggum tuer iggeharnuiggum. Yuddo kuggoykiaufto inenamu tuer tumbaggu. Yuddo iggebbandaaddo luwon ihenan tuggorpuyu iddeddaddu imwoddihush."
 * (Analysis: tuhot tukotpu-il-in itpopi-le-a-to ihelwih, ´uekpi-ik-um tuel ikehal-nu-ik-um. Yuto kukoy-ki-a-up-to inenam-u tuel tupmak-u. Yuddo ikepat-na-a-to luwon ihenan tukolpu-yu itetat-tu imwoti-huk.)
 * ("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")