Denari

The Denari language (Ferse-va Denari / فهرسه'ڤا دهناری) is a language of the hormagi-legana family, spoken by denari, an alien people of the planet Ēvèsh (world, in Denari). It is a nominative-accusative language, of SVO structure, but with some freedoms for SOV sentences. with highly declined nouns (it has eight grammatical cases), and highly conjugated verbs.

Its main speakers are the Denari, it is spoken mainly in Denar, officially Denari Republic (Kermèshvâna-va Denari / کهرمهٔشڤآنا'ڤا دهناری). The denari are monotheists, their religion is nishraism, and they accredit in a single goddess called Nishra (literally god in denari). Their religion encourages capitalism and the pursuit of profit, whose purpose is in the commerce practiced by the Denaris.

Denari is used as lingua franca in much of the planet Ēvèsh, having influenced many languages.

Consonants
Standard Denari has 28 consonants, being largely uncomplexed compared to other languages. The most complex parts of the consonant inventory are the presence of an emphatic voiceless alveolar sibilant [sˤ], or emphatic S, and the presence of uvular and glotal plosives, [q] and [ʔ] respectively.

Each consonant has its own individual letter, except for the consonants [r] and [ɾ], which are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic), and the phonemes [l] and [ɫ], which are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic).
 * The Denari only has a emphatic consonant, the [sˤ], which is only used between two vowels or betwen a vowel and a crescent diphtong, and is represented in the Perso-Arabic alphabet by the letter ص, a phoneme spelled as a [s], but with a sound near [z]. A similar phenomenon occurs in the Portuguese language, in which the letter S acquires the sound of [z] between vowels.
 * The phonemes [r] and [ɾ] are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic). Their uses vary from word to word, syllable to syllable and dialect to dialect, but usually the phoneme [ɾ] is often used more.
 * The phonemes [l] and [ɫ] are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic). The letter L represents the phoneme [l] when it precedes a vowel on the same syllable, and represents the phoneme [ɫ] when occur after a vowel on the same syllable. But in some dialects the L acquires the sound of [l] same at the end of the syllable after and vowel.
 * In Denari, nasal sounds ([n] and [m]) are only preceded, on the same syllable, by closed vowels ([i] and [u]), by close mid vowels ([e] and [o]), or by the open-mid central vowel ([ɐ]).

Vowels
The Standard Denari has eight vowels, being two closed vowels ([i] and [u]), and six open vowels, divided in three acute vowels ([a], [ɛ] and [ɔ]) and three grave vowels ([ɐ], [e], [o]). Each vowel has its own letter, differentiating the open front vowels from the open back vowels. This prevents words, which would be orthographically the same (varying only in the opening of the vowel), to be confused in the pronunciation. Example: In Denari, the closed vowels [i] and [u] and the semi-vowels [j] and [w] are respectively represented by the same letters, I / ی in the case of the phonemes [i] and [j], and U / ؤ  in the case of the phonemes [u] and [w]. This is because in Denari, sounds [j] and [w] are little used, used only in diphthongs, and, under certain circumstances, optional. The use of the sounds [j] and [w] in diphthongs is only compulsory when it is a rising diphthong (semi-vowel + vowel) antecedent of vowel or when the decreasing diphthong (vowel + semi-vowel). Examples:
 * Vos / ڤوس - /vos/ - Number two in English.
 * Vòs / ڤۏس - /vɔs/ - Uncle in English.
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.
 * The word naia / نایا, woman in denari, is pronounced [ˈna.ja]. In this case, the [i] would only be pronounced in the place of [j] if there was a tonic accent on the I, as occurs in the word aíad / ایَاد, stone in denari.
 * The word drai / درای, meaning death, is pronounced [dɾaj], that is because there is a decreasing diphthong. The [i] would be pronounced in place of [j] if there was a tonic accent, which would indicate that there is no diphthong.

Long Vowels
All denari vowels have their long versions, which are represented by the following forms: When the vowel is long, and precedes another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong will not be form, and it will be a hiatus. When the vowel is long but succeed another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong may form depending on the accent and diphthong formation rules.
 * In the Latin alphabet, by the addition of a macrón (ˉ) above the letter.
 * In the Arabic alphabet, by the addition of a diacritic (ـِ) below the letter.

Diphthongs
In denari, there are two categories of diphthongs: rising (semi-vowel + vowel) and falling diphthongs (vowel + semi-vowel or vowel + vowel).

Rising Diphthongs:
There are no rising diphthongs beginning in semi-vowel and ending in closed vowel (/ji/, /ju/, /wu/, /wi/) in Denari.

Falling Diphthongs:
Denari doesn't have falling diphthongs terminated in A, Â, È and Ò.

Hiatus
A hiatus occurs when two adjacent vowels are in different syllables, having non-continuous sound. A hiatus can be formed with all vowels, and will be orthographically identified by various rules of acentuantion and location of the vowel.
 * When the vowel is a long vowel, it will always form a hiatus with the next or previous vowel. Example: Lāsāi / لاِصاِی - [laːˈsˤaːi], meaning the declension of the word Lāsa in the genitive case.
 * When the two consecutive vowels (except when the second vowel is [i] or [u], because they have its own rules) are succeded by the stresseded syllable of the word, they will always form a hiatus, so there will be no graphical accentuation. Example: In the word Aoní / اونیَ - [a.oˈni], the letter O isn't accentuated, because a gap will always form when two vowels are succeeded by the stressed syllable [ˈni].
 * When the second vowel of two consecutive vowels is [i] or [u], the letters I and U will always be accentuated to identify the sounds of [i] and [u], not the sounds of [j] and [w] in their respective letters, and to indicate that the syllable in which these vowels are always the stressed syllable of the word. Exemple: In the words Zhaís (ژایَس) / Zhaír (ژایَر) - [ʒaˈis] / [ʒaˈiɾ], meaning the adjective bad, in the masculine and feminine forms, the letter I is accentuated, to indicate the hiatus, the sound of [i] and not [j], and the stresseds sylables of the words [ˈis] and [ˈiɾ], because when there is a hiatus and the second vowel is [i] or [u], they will always be in the stressed syllable.
 * There will always be hiatus when there is vowel succeded by A, Â, È and O, and not accentuated, except when one of the vowels is stressed and is accentuated according to the accentuation rules. Ex: Maèk / ماهٔک - [maˈɛk], meaning drink.
 * When there are three consecutive vowels letters in a word, there may be two situations: In the first situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel ([j] and [w]) and the third is another vowel. In this case, the first and second letters form a hiatus, and the second and third letters form a growing diphthong. Ex: Naia / نایا - [ˈna.ja], meaning woman. In the second situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel and the third is a vowel, and the first two letters form a diphthong, with the last two forming a hiatus. In this case, the last vowel will always be accentuated to indicate the hiatus and the fact that it will also be in the stressed syllable of the word. Ex: Paiór / پایۏَر - [pajˈɔɾ], meaning plant.

Optional Hiatus
Words that begin or with two consecutive vowels lerters may have optional gaps, in which, if there is no accent that indicates the tone, and hence the occurrence of the hiatus, the two letters can be pronounced both as hiatus and diphthong.

Exemples:
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.

Alphabet
Denari has its own alphabet, but in this text the words will be written in the Latin alphabet and in a modified Perso-Arabic alphabet (because they are the ones that best represent the Denari phonemes).
 * The "Ss", (س in Perso-Arabic alphabet), is used between two vowels, to represent the phoneme [s].
 * The ص is written as S in the Latin alphabet, but has a sound of [sˤ]. It is not used elsewhere, only between two vowels.

Pronouns
Pronouns in the Denari language are simple when compared to other languages. The denari has one pronoun for each person of the discourse, in the singular and in the plural.

In the first person, we have, in the nominative case, from which the pronouns in the other cases are derived, the pronouns ast / است (first person singular) and ahrā / احراِ (first person plural).

In the second person, we have, in the nominative case, the pronouns nor / نور (second person singular) and avut / اڤؤت (second person plural). Denari does not have the T - V distinction, and the use of pronouns does not depend on the relationship between the speakers or speech formality, but rather whether the speaker is speaking with one or more interlocutors. Both are used in both formal and informal speech, and اڤؤت / avut is as used as نور / nor, depending on the number of the interlocutor.

In the third person, pronouns differ in numbers as well as in gender. The denari has, in the third person singular the pronouns sas / ساس (he) and sar / سار (she) in the nominative case. The denari has no neutral gender, so there is no neutral pronoun. It also has no third-person pronoun for inanimate or non-human objects. As in the Romance languages, the masculine and feminine pronouns of the third person plural are the plural of the third-person pronouns of the singular, in the case saes / ساهس (they masculine) and saer / ساهر (they feminine) in the nominative case.

Denari, except in the nominative case, has a reflexive pronoun for the third person, being vet / ڤهت in the accusative case.

The Denari has nominative pronouns (indicating subject), accusative (indicating object), dative (indicating the sufferer of an action), instrumental (indicating company, instrument and agent of an action in the passive voice), ablative (indicating from the pronoun), possessive (indicating possessiveness), locative pronoun (indicating that the pronoun is the location of something), demonstrative, indefinite, relative and interrogative pronouns.

Nominative Pronouns
Nominative pronouns indicate the pronoun as subject of the sentence. Denari is a pronoun-droping language, that is, the nominative pronoun can be concealed because the verb conjugates according to the subject and indicate the subject. Since the Denari is an SVO language, the nominative pronoun always appears in front of the verb at the beginning of the sentence.

Acusative Pronouns
The accusative pronouns indicate the pronoun as direct object. Despite the fact that Denari is normally an SVO language, in the case of the accusative pronouns, they may precede the verb, after the subject, forming an SOV sentence.

The denari has the reflexive accusative pronoun of third person vet / ڤهت, which indicates that the subject also suffers the action. It is used to refer both to the third person masculine and feminine subject in the singular as in the plural.

Dative Pronouns
The dative pronouns indicate the pronoun as indirect object, that is, the one who is the recipient of the action.

As with accusative pronouns, a sentence with a dative pronoun can be SOV. There are also two ways to have a SVO phrase with a dative pronoun. In the first, the dative pronoun comes after the direct object of the sentence. In the second form, the dative pronoun precedes the direct object.

Instrumental Pronouns
Instrumentive pronouns indicate the pronoun as company or instrument of the subject, and is the agent of the sentence in passive voice.

The instrumental pronoun, unlike the accusative and dative pronouns, will always come after the verb, forming an SVO order, even though there is an accusative or dative pronoun assuming a SOV order in the same sentence. It will always come after the object of the sentence, often times being a word in the locative case. In denari there isn't order with someone in one place, but the order in a place with someone. Even if the object, when it is a dative or accusative pronoun, is before the verb, the comitative pronoun continues after the verb. Usually an instrumental pronoun means with someone/instrument, indicating both company and the use of an instrument. But when used in a passive sentence, it indicates the agent of the action, and can singify either with the instrument / company or by / because the instrument / company. Some postpositions are used to indicate a different meaning from the with the instrument / company:
 * Mòrd (مۏرد) - By
 * Mòrzârd (مۏرزآرد) - Because of
 * Mòrtāz (مۏرتاِز) - Via / By way of
 * Mòrdegaf (مۏردهگاف) - Through
 * Xâste (خآسته) - Without
 * Shaz (شاز) - With (little used)

Ablative Pronoun
The ablative pronouns indicate the pronoun as the origin of the movement away from something in relation to the subject. Like the comitative pronoun, the ablative pronoun will always remain after the verb, forcing an SVO order, even if it is related to an accusative or dative pronoun that precedes the verb in a SOV order.

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate a relation of possession of an object to the pronoun.

Possessive pronouns mostly precede the object they possess, and agree on gender and number with the object, acting as a possessive determinant. When accompanied by the object, the possessive pronoun never declines in grammatical case, because it is the object that decline.

But when in the same sentence a possessive pronoun is used as the determinant of an object, another possessive pronoun can be used without an object, since it is understood that it has the same object or another object that has the same denomination and is related to subject matter. In this case, when the possessive pronoun comes with no object that it has, it may decline according to the grammatical case it is in.

Exemple:
In the first and second person (both singular and plural), the posessive pronoun agrees on gender and number with the object, there being two posessive pronouns (one masculine and one feminine) for each person and number, with each posessive pronoun (masculine or feminine) presenting singular and plural form.
 * - In this case, the possessive pronoun ânra / آنرا is used as a determinant, and indicates the possession of the object aiar / ایار (mother).
 * - In this case, both are used as determinants, but, the subject of the sentence - ânra aiar -, or the object - árnar , can be repleced by a single possessive pronoun, like in the next sentence.
 * - In this case, the possessive pronoun árnar / اَرنیِر is used without a possessed object, becouse it can be understood that it refers to a mother, not the mother that is the subject, and is possessed by the speaker, but a another mother, maybe the same mother (it depends on the context, but assuming it is another mother), that is possessed by a woman unreported in this sentence. Also, in this sentence, the possessive pronoun decline in the accusative case.

As in the nominative case, third-person pronouns have masculine and feminine forms, and third-person plural pronouns are the plural of third-person singular, third-person possessive pronouns, singular and plural, present four forms in singular, two masculine and two feminine, each of two forms agreeing with the two denari genders of the object. Pronouns also have plural forms. Then, in addition to agreeing on the gender and the number of the object, the third-person pronouns indicate the gender and the number of the possessor. Then, in the singular, there are four possessive pronouns in the third person singular and four in the third person plural.

Reflexive possessive pronouns are only used when the possessor of the object has already been referred in the text, and can be either subject or direct / indirect object in the third person..