Xarrano

General information
An Iberian language spoken by the inhabitants of Xarra Alta.

Xarrano (pronounced /ʃa'rano/) is a romlang mainly inspired by Iberian Romance languages, also showing influence from Italian. The goal is that it resemble a language of the Iberian family while having a vowel alternating plural system due to specific sound changes.

Its family tree can be traced as Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Western Romance, Ibero-Romance, West-Iberian, Xarrano.

Its speakers mostly live in an isolated mountainous region in the Iberian peninsula called Xarra Alta ("tall sierra").

Please note that this page is part of a romlang challenge it will continuously be subject to alteration until the deadline (around June).

Historical sound changes
When compared to other Iberian languages, Xarrano shows some conservative features, such as distinction between voiceless and voiced fricatives, while having innovated in other areas like the coalescence of alveolar consonants with /j/ and palatalization of final /s/, eventually causing the loss of distinction between masculine and feminine in plural forms.

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General changes
a) Loss or lenition of final consonants:

AMAT, LUPŌS, VĪTAM (polysyllables) > ama, lobe (< loboy), vida

AUT, MEL, QUEM, TAM, SĪC (monosyllables) > o, miel, quien, tan, xin

b) Loss of /h/:

/h/ ADHAESIONEM,HABĒRE,PREHENDERE > /-/ adeson, aver, prender

c) Monophthongization of AE and OE:

/ai, oi/ CAELUM, GRAECUM, POENAM > /ɛ, e/ > /(j)e, e/ cielo, grego, pena

d) Minor changes:

/VnsV/ MENSEM, PREHENSUM > /VzV/ mes, preso

/CCC/ ASSŪMPTUM, FUNCTIONEM > /CC/ assunto, funçon

/lle#/ ILLĒ, MĪLLE, PELLEM > /l#/ el, mil, piel

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Changes related to Western Romance
a) Shift from vowel quantity to vowel quality (also in Italo-Western):

/iː, i, eː, e, a(ː), o, oː, u, uː/ > /i, e, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, o, u/

/ɛ, ɔ/ > [jɛ, wɔ] > /je, we/ only in stressed open syllables

b) Monophthongization of AU (also in Italo-Western):

/au/ AURICULAM, AUT, *autoricare, PAUCUM, TAURUM > /o/ oregha, o, otorgar, poco, toro

c) Assimilation processes (also in Italo-Western):

/bt, pt/ OBTENĒRE, SEPTEM > /t/ otener, xete

/bs, ps/ ABSOLŪTUM, PSALMUM > /s/ assoluto, salmo

d) Lenition of intervocalic plosives:

/b, d, g/ BIBERE, NŪDUM, *vagativu > /v, -, -/ bever, nuo, vadio

/p, t, k/ CAEPULLAM, RECIPERE, PRĀTUM, FOCUM > /b-v, d, g/ cebogha, recivir, prado, fuego

/pp, tt, kk/ STUPPAM, GUTTAM, PECCĀTUM > /p, t, k/ estopa, gota, pecado

(plosives surrounded by a semivowel were somewhat preserved, but suffered other changes)

e) Early process of syncope (between sonorants and plosives, and the sequence /sVt/):

/VCVCV/ COLAPHUM, OPERAM, COMITEM, POSITUM > /VCCV/ golpo, obra, conde, posto

/VCVCV/ *cosutura, NŌBILEM, LEPOREM, OCULUM, VIRIDEM > /VCCV/ costura, noble, lebre, ogho, verde

f) Palatalization processes:

/eV, iV/ FORTIAM, VĪNEAM > [jV] > /*V/ força, viña

/#j, VjV/ IAM, IEIŪNUM, IŪSTUM, MĀIOREM > /#ʒ, V(j/ʒ)V/ > /#ʒ, V(dʒ/ʒ)V/ ja, gejuno, justo, maghor

/ki, ke/ ACCEPTUM, CIRCĀ, CĪVĪLEM > [tʃV] > /tsV/ > /θV/ aceto, cerca, civil

- /Vki, Vke/ > ACĒTUM, COCĪNAM, LŪCEM > [VtʃV] > /VtsV/ > [VdzV] > /VðV/ azedo, cozina, luz

/gi, ge/ GENERUM, *pagense, VIGINTI > /jV/ > /ʒV/ or /-V/ gendro, país, vinte

/ski, ske/ PISCEM, CRĒSCERE > [stʃV] > /ʃV/ pexe, crexer

/tj, kj/ ALTIĀRE, BRĀCHIUM, FACIEM, LINTEOLUM > [ts, tʃ] > /ts/ > /θ/ alçar, braço, face, lençuelo

/dj, gj/ INVIDIAM, RADIUM > /ʒ/ or /j/ enveja, rayo > /ʒ/ or /dʒ/ enveja, ragho

- /V(d/g)(i/e)#/ HŌDIE, LEGEM, MAGIS > /Vj#/ > oy, ley, may > /*/ güe, lé, may

/stj, skj/ *bestiu, FASCIAM, QUAESITIONEM, SCIENTIAM > /st, ʃ/ bixo, faxa, queston, xença

/ptj, ktj/ ACTIONEM, OPTIONEM, *ruptia > /Cts/ > (C)θ/ açon, opçon, roça

/#sj, ssj/ *bassiu, MANSIONEM, PASSIONEM, RUSSEUM > /ʃ/ or [sj]>/s/ baxo, manson, paxon, roxo

/VsjV/ BĀSIUM, ECCLĒSIAM, *grisiu, LAESIONEM > /(¨)ʒ/ or [zj]>/z/ bejo, egleja, grijo, leson

/rj/ AREAM, CORIUM, DĒNĀRIUM, GLORIAM > /(¨)r/ era, qüero, denero, glora

/nj, lj/ FOLIAM, IŪNIUM, *maneana > /ɲ, ʎ/ folla, Juño, mañana > /ɲ, dʒ/ fogha, Juño, mañana

g) Development of /kt/:

/kt/ FACTUM, FRUCTAM, NOCTEM, OCTŌ > /jt/ > /(¨)tʃ/ fecho, prucha, noche, ocho

h) Prothesis of initial /sC/:

/#sC/ SCĀLAM, SPATIUM, SPHINGEM, STĀRE > /#esC/ escala, espaço, esfinge, estar

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Changes related to Iberian Romance
a) Loss of final front vowels after single, dental/alveolar, voiced consonant:

/e#, i#/ FĒCĪ, MENSEM, PĀNEM, VĒRITĀTEM > fezi, mese, pane, verdade > /#, (¨)#/ fiz, mes, pan, verdaz

b) Palatalization of geminated N and L:

/nn, gn, mn/ ANNUM, AUTUMNUM, DOMINAM, PUGNUM > [nn] > /ɲ/ año, otoño, doña, puño

/ll/ CASTELLUM, COLLĀREM, ILLAM > /ʎ/ castello, collar, ella > /dʒ/ castegho, coghar, egha

c) Development of /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ (also in Gallo-Romance):

/gʷ/ *guadaniare, *guerra, *guidare, SANGUINEM > /g/ gañar, garra, guiar, sangre

/kʷ/ LIQUOREM, QUANDŌ, QUINTUM, SQUĀMAM > /k, kw/ licor, quando, quinto, escama

- /Vkʷ/ AEQUALITĀTEM, ANTĪQUUM, AQUAM, QUIRĪTĀRE > [Vgw] > /Vg(w)/ egualdaz, antigo, agua, gridar

- (some) /kʷi, kʷe/ LAQUEUS, QUĪNQUE, TORQUERE > [ki, ke] > [tʃV] > /tsV/ > /θV/ laço, cinque, torcer

d) fragmentaion of /ks/:

/ksC/ DEXTERUM, EXPRESSIONEM, EXTENSUM > /(¨)sC/ destro, espresson, estenso

- /kske, kski/ EXCELSUM, EXCEPTUM, EXCITĀRE > /kkV/ > [ttʃV] > /tsV/ > /θV/ ecelso, eceto, ecitar

/VksV/ COXAM, FLUXUM, TOXICUM, VEXĀMEN > /VʃV/ coxa, ploxo, tóxico, vexambre

/VksV/ AUXILIUM, MAXIMUM, PROXIMUM > /VsV/ ossegho, mássimo, próssimo

/VksV/ EXHAURĪRE, EXŌTICUM, EXSULTĀTIONEM > /VzV/ esaurir, esótico, esultaçon

(some) /VksV/ EXAGIUM, EXĀMEN, EXSŪCĀRE > [VjsV] > /VnsV, VnʃV/ ensagho, enxambre, enxugar

e) Evolution of consonant groups with /l, r/:

/Vbr, Vdr, Vgr/ CATHEDRAM, LIBRUM, NIGRUM > /Vbr, V(¨)r, V(¨)r/ cadera, libro, nero

/Vpr, Vtr, Vkr/ SACRĀRE, MACRUM, OPERA, PETRAM > /Vbr, Vdr, Vgr/ sagrar, magro, obra, piedra

/Vppr, Vttr, Vkkr/ LETTERAM, QUATTUOR > /Vpr, Vtr, Vkr/ letra, quatro

/#fl, #pl, #kl/ CLĀMĀRE, FLŪMEN, PLŌRĀRE > /#tʃ/ chamar, chumbre, chorar

/#fl, #pl, #kl/ CLĒMENTIA, FLUXUM, PLATEAM, *subflare > /#pl, #kl/ clemença, ploxo, plaça, soplar

/Vp(V)l, Vt(V)l, Vk(V)l/ ARTICULUM, POPULUM, ROTULUM > /Vbl, Vʎ/ > /Vbl, Vdʒ/ artegho, pueblo, rogho

/bl, dl, gl/ *blanco, COĀGULĀRE > /bl, ʎ/ > /bl, dʒ/ blanco, quaghar

MASCULUM, MŪSCULUM, UNGULAM > maxo, buxo, uña

f) Later processes of syncope:

/nVr, mVr/ GENERUM, NUMERUM, HONŌRĀRE > [mr, nr] > /mbr, ndr/ gendro, nombro, ondrar

/inV/ DOMINAM, SĒMINAM, SŌLITŪDINEM, TERMINUM > /*/ dueña, sembra, soltuz, termo

/V/ ARBOREM, MŪSCULUM, SIMILANTEM, UNGULAM > /-/ arble, buxo, semblante, uña

/CVC/ ADVĒRIFICĀRE, CAPITĀLEM, CUBITUM, DŪBITAM > /*C/ averiguar, cadual, codo, duda

/CVC/ DECIMUM, IŪDICĀRE, HOSPITĀLEM, PORTATICUM > /*C/ ghezmo, juzgar, ostal, portazgo

/CVC/ *quassicare, RECITĀRE, TRĪTICUM, UNDECIM, VINDICĀRE > /*C/ cascar, rezar, trizgo, onze, vengar

g) Interactions between /l/ and /r/:

/l...l, r...r/ ARBOREM, *lusciniolu, MARMOREM, RŌBOR(EM) > /r...l/ arble, ruxingüelo, marble, roble

/l...l, r...r/ LOCĀLEM > /l...r/ logar

/r...l/ MĪRACULUM, PARABOLAM, PERĪCULUM > /l...r/ milagro, palabra, peligro

/r/ BURSAM, PAPYRUM, TENEBRĀS > /l/ bolsa, papel, teñeble

h) Minor or incomplete changes:

GAUDIUM, RATIONEM, TRAHERE > [VtsV, VdzV] > /VdzV > /VðV gozo, razon, trazer

/d, l, n, r/ ANIMAM, LAMPADAM, LĀXĀRE, LIBELLUM, -MEN > alma, lampra, dexar, nivegho, -mbre

/k/ *cocchleariu, NĒC ŪNUM, PECTEN > [ŋ] > /n, ng/ concharo, nenguno, penche

/#w/ > VERRERE, VERSŌRIAM, VŌTA, VULTUREM > [#β] > /#b/ barer, bassura, boda, boltre

/j, r/ CRĪBRA, PARIĒTEM > /-/ criva, parede

/ls, rs/ *ad traversu, INSULSUM, PERSŌNAM, VERSICUM > /s/ atraves, insosso, pessona, besco

CAPSAM, CAPULUM, CRYPTAM, MĀTTIANA, PULSĀRE > caxa, cacho, grota, mançana, puxar

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Specific changes in Xarrano
a) Semivocalization of final /s/ with posterior changes:

(stressed) /s#/ MAGIS, DVŌS, NŌS, TRĒS > /j#/ may, doy, noy, trey > /*/ may, due, nue, tre

(unstressed) /as#, es#, is#, os#, us#/ > [aj#, i#, (¨)i#, oj#, (¨)oj#] > /e#, (¨)e#, (¨)e#, e#, (¨)e#/

(metaphony of stressed vowels follows this direction: a > e; e > i; i = i; o > u; u = u)

b) Coalescence of dental/alveolar consonants and /j/:

CŌGITĀRE, DECEM, TERRAM > /tj, jt, dj, jd/ cuydar, diez, tierra > /tʃ, dʒ/ cughar, ghez, charra

ECCLĒSIAM, SERRAM, SEPTEM > /sj, js, zj, jz/ eglesia, sierra, siete > /ʃ, ʒ/ egleja, xarra, xete

COLŌNIAM, LEVEM, NEBULAM > /nj, jn, lj, jl/ colonia, lieve, niebla > /ɲ, dʒ/ coloña, gheve, ñebla

c) Loss of /j/ before back vowels where coalescence did not happen (except /ja/ from /je/):

CĪVĪTĀTEM, FACTIONEM > /Cj/ ciudaz (former /iw/), fecion/faccion > /C/ çudaz, feçon/facçon

FERRUM, PLUVIAM, VĪSIONEM > /Cj/ fierro, chuvia, vision > /C/ fiarro, chuva, vison

d) Merging of /j/ and /ʎ/ to become a voiced counterpart to /tʃ/:

EGŌ, EQUAM, HERĪ, MEDIUM > /j/ yo, yegua, yer, meyo > /dʒ/ gho, ghegua, gher, megho

BELLUM, CUBICULUM, FAMILIAM > /ʎ/ bello, covello, famella > /dʒ/ begho, covegho, famegha

e) Fortition of initial /w/:

AUDĪRE, HODIĒ, HOMŌ, OVUM > /#oV, #oj, #we/ oir, oy, huemo, huevo > /gwV/ güir, güe, güemo, güevo

f) Evolution of /je, we/ before /r(r)/:

ERRŌ, FERRUM, SERRAM > [jɛr] yerro, fierro, tierra, sierra > [jær] > /(j)ar/ gharro, fiarro, xarra

* guerra, PORRUM > [wɛr] guerra, puerro > [wær] > /(w)ar/ garra, puarro

(some) /e/ ERVILIAM, MULIEREM, VERRERE, *versoria > [ɛ] > /a/ arvegha, mughara, barrer, bassura

g) Merging of /b/ and /v/ as well as the remaining /p/ and /f/ when before the sonorants /ɾ, l/:

* blancu, *haver hemos, PAUPER > /bl, br, vl, vr/ blanco, avremo, pobre > /bl, br/ blanco, abremo, pobre

FLOREM, FRĪGIDUM, PLACERE, PRŌVIDENTIAM > /fl, fr, pl, pr/ > /pl, pr/ plor, prio, plazer, prudença

h) Loss of final unstressed /n/:

ILLŌS AMANT, IUVENEM, VIRGINEM > /n#/ ellos aman, joven, vergen > /#/ eghe ama, jove, verge

i) Other general changes:

FRONTEM, GRAECUM, PROBAM > /C(l/r)(j/w)/ pruente, griego, prueva > /C(l/r)/ prente, grego, preva

CĪVĪTĀTEM, DĒBITAM > /ew, iw/ ciudaz, deuda > /(j)o, (j)u/ çudaz, ghoda

j) Minor changes:

DOMINAM, SOMNIUM, VERĒCUNDIAM > /oɲ/ doña, soño, vergoña > /weɲ/ dueña, sueño, vergüeña

* ad si, LĪLIUM, QUASĪ, SĪC, VENĪRE, VESĪCULAM > axin, ghigho, cage, xin, veñer, begiga

CELEREM, *pagense, THĒMAM > çarre, país, cema

Consonants
- /n/ has many allophones that are homorganic with a following consonant.

- A dental or alveolar fricative in coda position does not present voice distinction. That means, their voice parameter depends on the next sound (e. g. they assimilate). When before pause, they are devoiced.

- /h/ is only used in some loanwords. It is realized as a weak [x] or another back fricative, or not pronounced at all.

- /j/ has become rare in Xarrano as an independent consonant, since it historically merged with /ʎ/ and both became /dʒ/, but it is still preserved in the sequence /aj/. It also appears in some loanwords. Some people tend to pronounce it as [dʒ] word initially, even though it is considered inappropriate.

- Similarly to /j/, the foreign phoneme /w/ has gained acceptance through borrowing, but it is sometimes mispronounced as [gw] word initially.

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Vowels
- The mid vowels are realized as close-mid vowels, but sometimes they can be more open when they are in closed stressed syllables.

- Beside the basic vowels, there are two more vowel phonemes represented by the diphthongs /je/ and /we/. They are both regarded as front vowels. New crescent diphthongs were formed at the transition to the modern language.

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Alphabet
Officially, all the 26 letters of modern Latin alphabet are taught, but K, W don't appear in Xarrano native vocabulary. The letter Y, now rare, was once widely used in older versions of the language. Also, there are the additional letters Ç and Ñ which are collated after C and N.

The letters are treated as feminine nouns and their names are as follows:

A - a /a/

B - be /be/

C - ce /'θe/

Ç - cedegha /θe'dedʒa/

D - de /de/

E - e /e/

F - efe /'efe/

G - ge /ʒe/

H - acha /'atʃa/

I - i /i/

J - joda /'ʒoda/

K - ka /ka/

L - ele /'ele/

M - eme /'eme/

N - ene /'ene/

Ñ - eñe /'eɲe/

O - o /o/

P - pe /pe/

Q - cu /ku/

R - arre /'are/

S - esse /'ese/

T - te /te/

U - u /u/

V - ve /ve/

W - ve dobla /ve 'dobla/

X - xe /ʃe/, former ics /iks/

Y - i grega /i 'grega/

Z - ze /ðe/, former zeda /'ðeda/

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Phonotactics
Most natively, Xarrano phonotactics is composed of relatively simple syllables, in which the only mandatory part is a nucleus formed by at least one vowel sound. The basic Xarrano syllable structure can be demonstrated as follows:

(C)(C)V(C): where the fist (C) can be any consonant; the second (C) can be L, R, I or U (as semivowels); and the last (C) can be L, N, R, S, U or Y (as semivowels), or Z.

Beside that basic model, some more complex syllables may appear due to borrowing or preservation of original words in Latin, Greek or others.

Here go some examples:

V - a /a/

CV - lé /le/

VC - en /en/

CCV - tre /tɾe/

CVC - sal /sal/

V.CV - año /'a.ɲo/

CV.CV.CV - cavagho /ka'va.dʒo/

CVC.CCVC - mostrar /mos'tɾar/

A distinctive feature in Xarrano, as in most other Romance languages, is syllable stress. It can be placed in the last, second or third to last syllable on a word and it usually don't affect its phonotactics, except for one active restriction on post-tonic syllables: they tend to be reduced to a simple CV structure. For instance, when learning English, a native Xarrano speaker tends to pronounce the English word shopping (/ˈʃɑːpɪŋ/) as xapi or xope, and dollar becomes dala or dola.

Since most syllables are of the type CV, the overall utterance usually happens at a faster pace.

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Orthography
Xarrano's orthography is considered to be shallow. However, some traditions have been preserved.

The letters A, B, D, E, F, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, T, U, V, W represent their basic phonemic values.

Other representations in writing are presented below:

/ɲ/: Ñ.

/tʃ/ and /dʒ/: CH and GH. They are perceived as belonging to the plosive group.

/k/: C before A, O, U; QU before E, I.

/g/: G before A, O, U; GU before E, I.

/kw/ and /gw/: QU and GU before A, O; QÜ and GÜ before E, I.

/θ/: Ç before A, O, U; C before E, I.

/ð/: Z (rare word initially).

/s/: S word initially, after consonant and before consonant or pause; SS intervocalic.

/z/: S, only in intervocalic position.

/ʃ/: X.

/ʒ/: G before E, I; J before A, O, U.

/r/: R word initially and before consonant or pause; RR intervocalic.

/ɾ/: R, after a consonant and in intervocalic position.

/j/: Y, but written I in crescent diphthongs.

Since dental and alveolar fricatives appear in coda position without voice distinction, convention says they must be written Z and S.

As for diacritics, the diaresis is used over U to keep it pronounceable before a front vowel. The acute accent marks a stressed syllable under the following conditions: a) open oxytone; b) paroxytone with a closed last syllable; c) proparoxytone; d) stressed open monosyllable if not using it may cause confusion.

Grammar
This section will mainly approach morphological as well as syntactical aspects of the language.

Xarrano's word classes are: sostantivo (noun), pronombre (pronoun), cipra (number), agetivo (adjective), averbal (adverb), partegha (particle) (comprising articles, prepositions, conjunctions and exclamations) and verbo (verb).

Nouns, pronouns, numbers, adjectives and adverbs form a bigger class simply called nombre (name). They are believed to contribute to the mental process of creating and modifying stactic images. Particles are thought to relate those images to each other, while verbs give sense and movement to the whole sentence.

Morphologically, some grammatical distinctions can be observed in Xarrano:

- gendro (gender): masculine vs. feminine; applied to nouns, pronouns and adjectives.

- cantidaz (number): singular vs. plural; applied to all classes but particles.

- caso (case): nominative vs. objective; only seen in personal pronouns.

- pessona (person): first, second and third; mainly applied to pronouns and verbs.

- tempo (tense) and megho (mode): applied to verbs.

Grammatical case inflection was lost since Latin, although it did survive in the personal pronouns and also can now be identified by looking at prepositions. Verbal inflections for voice and aspect were also lost and are now achieved through periphrasis. The table below summarizes the possibility of inflection among noun classes: .

Nouns
They can be used as the head of a subject, object or nominal complement. Morphologically, every noun is assigned a grammatical gender, masculine or feminine, that affects its own form and also the form of related adjectives and other modifying words. Beside gender, another parameters affecting their form are grammatical number, which can be defined as singular or plural, and degree, like diminutive, augmentative and superlative.

At the semantic level, nouns can be classified as:

concrete: barco (boat), mançana (apple) vs. abstract: begheza (beauty), opçon (option)

common: çapato (shoe), chuva (rain) vs. proper: Mateo (Matthew), Ostragha (Australia)

simple: chano (ground), plor (flower) vs. compound: lavarropa (washing machine, from lava and ropa)

primitive: triste (sad), piedra (stone) vs. derived: tristeza (sadness), piedrada (stone strike)

collective: cacho (bunch), cardume (school (of fish))

Gender and number interact differently depending on the word, especially in the modern language because masculine and feminine plural endings have merged into -e. Such plural has been assigned a new gender category called comun (common) when singular words still are distinguished by their endings, although several words have preserved gender distinction in plural forms by suffixation.

Most Latin vowel endings were preserved and became representative of the two genders, but a new group of nouns had their final vowel dropped or maintained in -e and now inflect for number through metaphony on the last stressed vowel (a > e, e > i, i = i, o > u, u = u). The following examples will be presented with the corresponding definite article.

Masculine: el cielo (ms., the sky), le ciele (mp., the skies)

Feminine: la famegha (fs., the family), le fameghe (the families)

Variable: el conde, la condessa (ms., the count, fs. the countess), le cunde, le condesse (mp., fp.)

Semivariable: el gato, la gata (ms., fs., the cat), le gate (cp. the cats)

Invariable: la pessona (fs., the person), le pessone (fp., the people)

Nouns can also receive special endings denoting size, endearment, deprecation, collection and others. Information about size can be added by using the augmentative or diminutive degree. The main endings are -on (always of masculine gender) for augmentative and -ino (of variable gender) for diminutive but there are many others, including root changes in some words and substitutions. Analytical ways of expressing size, such as adding the adjective grande (big) after the noun, are also used.

gato ((male) cat), gata (female cat), gate (cats), gatino (little (male) cat), gatina (little (female) cat), gaton (big cat), gatucho (dear little cat), gataria (a lot of cats).

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Pronouns
This class contains a restricted number of words that can occupy the position of a noun in a sentence and whose meaning generally depends on another referent. They fullfill a variety of functions, from replacing an aforementioned noun to giving quantitative information. The personal pronouns are the only subgroup that has maintained case distinction.

- Pessonel (personal pronouns): - Demostrative (demonstrative pronouns):

questo, questa, queste (this, these); quegho, quegha, queghe (that, those, the one(s)); tal, tel (such); lo, la, le (the one(s)); and others.

- Enquiritive (interrogative pronouns):

que (what), quien (who), qual, quel (which (one(s))), donde (where), quando (when), como (how).

- Indefinide (indefinite pronouns):

alguno, alguna, algune (some(one)); algo (something); neñuno, neñuna, neñune (no(one)); nugha (nothing); todo, toda, tode (all, every(one)); molto, molta, molte (much, many); poco, poca, poque ((a) few); altro, altra, altre (other); cascuno, cascuna, cascune (each(one)); certo, certa, certe ((a) certain); vare (various); tanto, tanta, tante (so much, so many, "an unspecified number"); calquier, calquir (any); ambe (both); and others.

- Relative (relative pronouns):

que (that, which), quien (who), donde (where); lo qual, la qual, le quel (who/which), cujo, cuja, cuje (whose); quanto, quanta, quante (who/which); and others.

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Numbers
This class contains words indicating quantity and numerical order. In order to avoid confusion with the term nombre, used for names, Xarrano speakers replaced the old term nombro with cipra, a term borrowed from Arabic and cognate with English cipher. There are basically four types of number: cardinal, ordinal, moltiplicativo (multiplicative) and praçonaro (fractional).

The tables below show Xarrano's cardinal, ordinal and multiplicative numbers ranging from 1 to ?. Fractional numbers will be dealt below the tables. Fractional numbers are either the same as the ordinal numbers (from 3 to 13, then from 100 to one bilion) or the cardinal numbers followed by ave. Since they represent the bottom number in a fraction, they are preceded by an ordinal number and then inflect for number (for instance, 3/4 is tre quarte, and 5/16 is cinque ghezesses ave or simply cinque sor ghezesses). The fractional number for 2 has the special form megho (half).

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Adjectives
In this class are words that add information about a referent, usually a noun. Most adjectives have the same morphological properties tha can be found on nouns, although their inflection depends on the head in either attributive or predicative position. This is called concordança (concord). Also, they can also inflect for the superlative degree, while a few words have retained the comparative degree as well.

El qüego é bueno . (The (male) cook is good)

La qüega é buena . (The female cook is good)

''Le qüegue son buene. ''(The cooks are good)

''Questo qüego é meghor. ''(This cook is better)

''Questo qüego é ótimo. ''(This cook is great)

The possessive (possessives) form a subgroup of the adjective class and show information about who possesses the modified referent (they can inflect by person, gender and number) as well as gender and number of the possessed referent. In attributive position, an article must be used before the possessive: this allows singular person possessives to not inflect for gender and number when they are prepositioned.

''El mi gato estava manjando. / El gato mio estava manjando. ''(My cat was eating.)

Quegha taça é tua ? (Is that cup yours?)

''El Mateo é un amigo nostro. ''(Matthew is a friend of ours.)

''Avemo chegade cola vostra madre. ''(We have arrived with your [pl.] mother.)

''Devo osseghar le su amigue! / Devo osseghar le amigue sue !'' (I must help his/her/their friends!)

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Adverbs
This class is composed by invariable words (oftentimes resembling masculine adjectives) that mofify a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence as they add information about circumstance, doubt, intensity, mood, negation, place, time, and others. Most adjectives can become adverbs through the -mente suffix. Conversely, some adverbs can inflect to show information about degree (superlative, diminutive, etc) just as adjectives do.

Affirmation, negation, doubt: xin (yes), non (no), quissá (perhaps), talvez (maybe).

Mood: axí (this way, like this), bien, meghor (well, better), mal (bad), -mente (-ly).

Place: ca (here), i (there), lá (there).

Time: gher (yesterday), güe (today), deman (tomorrow); ante (before), ja (now, already), ora (now), pue (after); cedo (early), tarde (late).

Other: assaz (very, enough), cage (almost), may (more, anymore).

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Particles
Words in this class don't have an independent or even dependent (anaphoric) semantic value but are important elements as they define relations among the arguments of a sentence, giving information about definiteness, grammatical case or linking different sentences in many ways. Isolated words like the entrejeçun (exclamations) are grouped in this class as well.

Articles: el (ms.), la (fs.), le (cp.) (the, "definite"); un (ms.), una (fs.), une (cp.) (a(n), some, "indefinite").

Conjunctions: como (like, as), e (and), may (but), nen (nor, "and not"), o (or), que (that), si (if); and others.

Exclamations: ay, au (ouch), chau (bye), ey (hey), ola (hi).

Prepositions: a (at, to), baxo (under), cima, con (with), de (of, from), en (in, at), entre (between, among), per (for), sin (without), sor (on, over); and others.

- The short prepositions a, con, de, en, per and sor fuse with the definite articles, as shown in the table below: Articles and prepositions usually lose their final unstressed vowel when followed by a word beginning with an unstressed vowel. This actually happens with any boundaries with unstressed vowels, where only the last survives, and it is not shown in orthography. However, several short, common words, such as the pronoun el (he) and the noun agua (water), cause a preceding article or preposition to lose its final vowel as well. For instance, el (he) plus the preposition en becomes nel (or n'El if it is referring to God); de is contracted before agua in the sentence Ho carença d'agua (I need water).

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Verbs
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Syntax
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Vocabulary
(Xarrano) - (English)

OGECHE - Objects

cesto (m.) - basket

libro (m.) - book

mesa (f.) - table

segha (f.) - chair

taça (f.) - cup

Example text
Decharaçon Universal dele Dereche Umane:

"Tode pessone naxe libre e egual en deñidaz e dereche. Pue sendo dotade de razon e coxença, eghe se deve trachar con espírito de germandaz."