Yoketian

The Yoketians were the first civilization of their world. Their written history started around the year -2000 and reached its heyday around -700. They were organized in a number of rivaling slave-owning city-states, ruled by a duke (acway, literally 'strong man'). The cities constantly fought each other.

Their religion was polytheistic and featured multiple human sacrifices (wirawča), mostly of prisoners of war. Once a year, there was a feast during which a slave was crowned duke and everything normally considered sinful was allowed. After the feast, the Yoketian sacrificed the slave to the sun goddess Ma'elchor.

The Yoketians were ultimately conquered by the Nolikan emperor Ahmelati in the year 78.

Etymology: Yōket literally means 'the nurturing place'.

=Language=

The Yoketian language (yōkettu) was the first written language of Hudar. Writing started with logograms but later evolved into a syllabary, which was borrowed to write Nolikan. The writing system was never standarized. There were often two or three glyphs for the same syllable; and their shapes varied from city to city.

Allophony
As in any language, there were some allophonic variations:


 * /n/ assimilates to place of articulation of a following stop or affricate, which in turn is voiced
 * dental and palatal consonants except of r followed by y turn into geminates, for example s+y -> ss, n+y -> nn
 * /pj kj kʷt mj/ turn into

Stress and phonotactics
Stress falls always on the penultimate syllable. Long vowels are found only in open syllables, except some monosyllables such as hwār 'girl'. /l r/ do not occur in word-initial positions, and aspirated obstruent occur only before vowels.

Noun
Yoketian nouns are inflected for case, number and possessor. There are two genders: animate and inanimate.

There are 12 cases, whith the following endings:
 * Nominative - Ø
 * Accusative -u (animated masculine nouns), -a (other nouns)
 * Dative -or 'for X'
 * Locative -tin 'in X'
 * Ablative -saw 'from X'
 * Allative -mun 'to X'
 * Instrumental -ske 'using X'
 * Comitative -lwa 'with X'
 * Prolative -pe 'through X'
 * Comparative -uš 'like X'
 * Essive -akw 'acting as X'
 * Vocative -ā

Epenthetic /e/ is inserted to avoid forbidden clusters. 'With a girl' is hwārelwa not *hwārlwa.

Number endings go after case endings. The plural ending is -r ( -l when there is already a /r/ in the word) and dual ending is -me. Vocatives are stressed on last syllable.

Nouns get also possessive prefixes:

Alienable and inalienable possession is distinguished, so 'my horse' is yephec, but 'my heart' is aruhiš.

Nouns are negated by prefixing kwe-

Verbs
Yoketian verbs also get possessive prefixes: inalienable for agreement with subject and alienable with object. Atōphu'ul is 'I love you' and Issephu'ul (sandhi from is-ye-phu'ul) is 'You love me'. Reflexive forms are expressed by the accusative prefix -nī-: anītho' is 'I see myself'.

There is also a system of suffixes, used to express tense:
 * Present -Ø
 * Past -kha
 * Future -'it
 * Conditional –pho

Yoketian has also a rather complicated system of aspects:


 * Imperfective -Ø
 * Perfective –'un
 * Progressive -che'
 * Durative -mul
 * Iterative –šo
 * Inchoative –ya

Negation is expressed by -pu:


 * ēkwe 'speak' -> ēkwepu 'not to speak'

Adjectives are a subclass of verbs in Yoketian. Because subject in the third person requires no agreement prefixes, only word order differentiates between:


 * pirpa ohor 'a bird is white'
 * ohor pirpa 'a white bird'.

as well as


 * pirpa čolte 'a bird sings'
 * čolte pirpa 'a singing bird'

Degrees are expressed by means of prefixes:


 * mual 'to be beautiful'
 * X-Acc wimual 'to be more beautiful than X'
 * X-Acc sēmual 'to be less beautiful than X'

Imperative is formed by adding stressed -ē (or -hē after a vowel) to a verbal root.

There is no morphological passive, but the subject can be replaced by indefinite ap 'someone' or even omitted altogether.

The verb "to be" and personal pronouns
The verb "to be" has special forms for each person:


 * 1st singular san
 * 1st exclusive hwo'
 * 1st inclusive khek
 * 2nd šū
 * 3rd he

Personal pronouns are formed by adding -hwi. These however are used only as emphatic forms, because person is normally expressed using prefixes.

Syntax
Yoketian is SOV and consistently head-final.

Double negation is obligatory. To say "I have no money", one must negate both the noun and the verb: kwenīmo acampu.

There is no word for "and"; the words are just juxtaposed, as in phoy hwār 'a boy and a girl''.

There is a special ending for subordination, -hwi:


 * Phoy āmara o'kelkhahwi oritkha 'a boy heard that the cow was stolen'.

Word formation
As most roots are verbal, there are several nominalizers:


 * -n for agents:
 * hokme 'to be stupid' -> hokmen 'fool'


 * -s for patients
 * alāčo 'to teach' -> alāčos 'student'


 * -ča for instances of an action:
 * wiraw 'to pay' -> wirawča 'payment', 'sacrifice' (understood payment to the gods)


 * -tu for ways of action:
 * Noliktu 'the Nolikan language'


 * -ket 'place' for places:
 * alāčo 'to teach' -> alāčoket 'school'


 * -poc 'thing' for tools:
 * sayphe 'kill' -> sayphepoc 'weapon'


 * -way 'man' and -sikw 'woman' for inhabitants:
 * Yōketway 'a Yoketian man', Yōkessikw 'a Yoketian woman'