Nebadiʒ

Nebadiʒ is a language spoken by a type of lake dragon known as neba, which live in various lakes on the Tunisan Peninsula.

Stress and Intonation
Primary stress is placed on the first syllable of word roots, with every other syllable receiving a lesser stress. Example: beba "lake." The stress follows the pattern: BEba.

Add genitive prefix ne-, and the stress remains determined by beba: neBEba. Stress is shown in nebadiʒ primarily through volume, but pitch-raising and lengthening still apply as they would in a human language.

Consonants
Nebadiʒ has a class of consonants called squishes, which are unpronounceable to humans. They are made by drawing water into a special pouch beneath the lake dragons' tongues and rapidly squishing it out while speaking. The most comparable sound for humans are the clicks of the Khoisan languages. The second-most comparable would be aspirated versions of voiceless stops.

Phonotactics
Vowels may not touch.

Consonants may precede or follow a vowel, but they (consonants) can only touch at syllable boundaries.

/j/ may not come between two /i/s or start a word with an /i/ immediately following.

Double consonants are permitted.

Writing System
Nebadiʒ is not a written language in its own universe, but its romanization is here for convenience.

Nouns
Nouns do not inflect. Their role in the sentence is clarified by prepositions and word order.

Genitive constructions
There are two options to show genitivity in Nebadiʒ: with prefix ne- or with the adjective form of one of the nouns.

Ne-
This is a new innovation in Nebadiʒ that's not found in its parents or cousins, and it's currently the most popular option for genitive constructions. It sometimes carries a notion of definiteness with it. It attaches to the noun that is possessed or otherwise the genitive object and takes the first position of the phrase. Ex: Bexi's prince (dti/gka) -> nedtigka bexi.

With an Adjective
This is the traditionally-used construction that is found in Nebadiʒ's cousins. The noun that has possession or the genitive head is transformed into an adjective with the appropriate infix (see the following section) and accordingly follows the other noun. Ex: Bexi's prince -> dtigka bewixxi. Although this method of constructing a genitive is losing ground to the ne- prefix, it is still an option anywhere that definiteness is not needed. (This is especially true for older speakers.) It's still the default option when a word that ne- would attach to already starts with ne, and it's actually required when there's a need for indefiniteness. Ex: The neba of the lake (be/ba) is neba bewixba, not *neneba beba.

Also contrast nedtigka dinisa (the prince of Tunisa - probably the successor to the throne) and dtigka diniwixsa (a prince of Tunisa).

Verbs
Verbs in Nebadiʒ generally belong to one of three main classes. They are separable and can take one of four tenses.

Classes
The three main classes are based on voice. They are active verbs, passive verbs, and beneficiary verbs.

Active Verbs
With an active verb, an agent, theme, or experiencer may take the subject position. As a general rule, active verbs start with bpi. Verbs of this class have a valency of one or two. Ex: bpi/xilebp "to visit a place"

The theoretical underlying form of I (ja) visit Tunisa (dinisa) is *Ja bpixilebp dinisa. (Verb conjugation and separability are discussed later in this section.)

Passive Verbs
With a passive verb, an object may take the subject position. As a general rule, passive verbs start with we or wa. Verbs of this class have a valency of two. Ex: wa/wa "to marry"

The theoretical underlying form of You (rig) marry the prince is *Wi rig wawa dtigka.

Beneficial Verbs
With a beneficial verb, a beneficiary or patient may take the subject position. As a general rule, beneficial verbs end with de or da. Verbs of this class have a valency of one to three. Ex: jera/de "to be pleasing or acceptable for (someone)"

The theoretical underlying form of She (rig) likes the prince is *ʒa rig jerade dtigka.

Tenses
Nebadiʒ uses four tenses: a past tense, which refers to actions or states from the past, at or before the time of narration; a past-future tense, which refers to actions or states from the past, but from after the time of narration; a present tense, which refers to present actions, present states, and habitual actions; and a future tense, which refers to any action or state in the future. The tenses are formed through infixing.

Past: -lil-

Past-future: -lag-

Present: (base form of verb)

Future: -giʒ- Ex: (*Again, separability will be discussed later.)

Bexi liked the prince.

*ʒa bexi jeralilde dtigka.

Bexi would later start to like the prince.

*ʒa bexi jeralagde dtigka.

Bexi likes the prince.

*ʒa bexi jerade dtigka.

Bexi will like the prince.

*ʒa bexi jeragiʒde dtigka.

Modals and Aspects
Nebadiʒ has three inseperable verbs that serve to indicate mood or aspect: one for subjunctive, one for quotative, and one for perfect aspect.

Subjunctive
Nebadiʒ's subjunctive is used for hypotheticals, conditionals, and wishes/desires. When these constructions are contrary-to-fact, the inseparable adverb i is used with the first clause.

The subjunctive verb is de/la. When present, this verb takes the tense for the whole sentence. When talking about this action expressed by this verb itself being in the past, past-future, or future, a generic time expression must be added into the sentence. Contrast the present desire wi dtigka wawa ja dela (I want to marry a prince) with wi dtigka wawa ja delilla i (I wish I had married a prince).

Also contrast the conditional rig jedi neba dela, beba jedi nerig beba (if someone is a neba, then the lake is their lake) with the hypothetical rig jedi neba dela i, beba jedi nerig beba (if someone were a neba, then the lake would be their lake).

Quotative
Nebadiʒ's quotative is used for indirect quoting of others. It is also used to mark rumors (like "they say"), and a speaker's own thoughts, opinions, and emotions.

The quotative is ve/xa, but it is usually shortened to vex when there's no infix. As with dela, when this verb is present, it takes the tense for the whole sentence. Ex: ''Wi rig walilwa dtigka vex. ''(They say the prince married somebody.)

Quoting a thought or emotion uses a little less of a complete sentence. For example, ''how nice. is nele vex.''

Perfect Aspect
Nebadiʒ uses a separate verb to indicate a perfect aspect of a sentence. This verb is il/ar, and it leaves the tense with the other verb.

Contrast *dtigka bpililxilebp wi beba (the prince visited the lake) with dtigka bpililxilebp wi beba ilar (the prince had visited the lake).

Separability
When there is only one verb in a main clause, the verb separates to fill both V positions in the language's SVO-V Final word order. Only the last part of the main morpheme moves back to the final position. Ex: bpi/xilepb

The prince wants to visit the lake is Dtigka bpixilepb wi beba dela - no separation of the main verb, but the prince visits the lake is Dtigka bpi wi beba xilepb - everything after the slash in the citation form of the verb moves to the end of the sentence.

Copula
Nebadiʒ's copula is je/di. It takes tense the same way other verbs would do, but it never moves to the final position. It also blocks both its arguments from taking prepositions to mark their role. Ex: ''Bexi jedi neba. ''(Bexi is a neba.)

Syntax
SVO-V Final

Nebadiʒ relies heavily on infixes; so nouns, verbs, and adjectives usually have a set place to insert an infix into. These are marked in the lexicon with a slash. However, there are a few words from these groups that do not take infixes at all. Ex: ne/le (adjective) - good.

Add in an emphatic infix like -na-, and you separate the ne and the le: nenale. Adverbs go at the end of the sentence - past the last of the verb phrase.

Noun, then adjective, then quantifier.

Clause markers go at the very front of the sentence.

The phrase jeri jedi (the probability is....) is always abbreviated to jeri.

Lexicon
Be/ba (noun) - a lake.

Bi/bpa (noun) - a treaty.

Bi/lar (noun) - a female/a queen/any female noble (usually used to refer to the neba queen).

Bpe (conjunction) - and.

Bpeg/kide - to receive/to get (beneficiary).

Bpi/dtig (verb) - to make/to create (active).

Bpiv/raʒet (noun) - transformation.

Bpiwi/de (verb) - to develop (beneficial).

Bpi/xilebp (verb) - to visit a place (active).

De (noun) - a Twan (a member of the [human] Twanic tribes).

De/la (modal verb) - to wish that (something would happen).

Dini/sa (noun) - Tunisa, the name of a country in the nebas' universe.

Dti/gka (noun) - a prince/any male noble/a male.

Dti/nai (noun) - a pond.

Dtil/wab (noun) - a human.

Dtiv/de (verb) - to translate (beneficiary verb).

Egk (number) - three.

Eja/zi (adjective) - equal or neutral (usually used as a comment on probability).

Fane/ben (noun) - any human who was originally some other species, but transformed through magical means.

Gil/wif (noun) - a forest dragon.

Idis (adverb) - too/also/as well.

Il/ar (modal verb) - serves as a perfect aspect of a verb.

Iʒ (clause marker) - marks a hypothetical clause? I'll need to find the rest of my notes. Anyway, it's often used to talk about probability, and when it does, its clause is the first clause.

Ja (pronoun) - first person.

Je/di - copula.

Jera/de (verb) - to be pleasing or acceptable for someone (sometimes used to talk about someone agreeing to something).

Je/ri - the probability.

Je/ragk - a mountain dragon.

Le (number) - one

Liv/lave (noun) - a whale.

-na- (intensifier) - puts extra emphasis on the word it's inserted in. It also changes the word's stress pattern to place primary emphasis on itself.

Ne/ba (noun) - the type of lake dragon that speaks Nebadiʒ.

Nebe/de (verb) - to shelter (beneficiary).

Nebi/lar (noun) - female/any female royal or noble except for the neba queen (slang).

Nedegk/dta (noun) - us (in a cultural sense). Specifically, neba.

Nedinisa (noun) - a Tunisan.

Ne/le (adjective) - good/nice.

Neri (noun) - size/volume. (Not used as a unit of measurement, but often used in comparing sizes between objects.)

Neʒa/wi (noun) - a "close culture." The word refers to cultures that A) have good relations with the neba, B) are similar to their own, and C) belong to species that share a mythological evolutionary ancestor with the neba. The word usually refers to sea dragons, but it can also refer to river dragons that have maintained their oldest known cultural identity.

Nil/dtig (noun) - a potion.

Ra/ja (noun) - a measurement of dimensions (primarily used as a unit of measurement). Normally, it appears as neraja as a unit of measurement, but with just one unit, it doesn't take a numeral so remains raja.

Regk/bis (noun) - a dragon (of any type).

Rejavirlid (adverb) - until then.

Rig (pronoun) - the non-first-person pronoun

Ve/xi (modal verb) - used to quote people or things (including gossip, thoughts, and emotions). When there is no infix, the word is often shortened to vex.

Wa/wa (verb) - to marry (passive verb).

We/ji (verb) - to choose (passive verb).

We/lax (noun) - the proximity.

Wel/dax (noun) - a country. (This is still a rather foreign concept to many neba - at least in the sense of legal ownership of territory.)

We/zar (verb) - to conquer (passive verb).

Wi (preposition) - marks the object of a sentence.

Wi/lax (adjective) - new.

Xe (quantifier) - many

Xi/ba (noun) - the sea

Xiʒ (noun) - the best/the favorite (especially, the neba queen's favorite).

ʒa (preposition) - marks the beneficiary of a sentence.

ʒi/ziz (noun) - a river.

Idioms
ʒa X dtivda Y wi bibpa - Y proposes a treaty to X (lit. Y translates a treaty for X) 

Example text
Nedegkdta jedi neba. We are lake dragons.

Nedegkdta jedi neraja egk. We are (about) three raja (long).

ʒa neʒawi nebe xiba de. Our cousins live in the sea.

Rig jedi nelivlave neri. They are the size of whales.

ʒa neʒawi nebe ʒiziz de idis. Our cousins live in rivers too.

Rig jedi raja. They are (about) (one) raja (long).

ʒa dtilwab xe nebe nebaba welax de. Or ʒa dtilwab xe nebe welax bepabba de. Many humans live near our lakes.

Rig jedi de vex. (They) say they are Twans.

Rig bpidtig wi weldax ilar bpe rig jedi dinisa vex. They have made a country and they call it Tunisa.

Wi gilwif wezar nedinisa ilar. The Tunisans have conquered the forest dragons.

Iʒ wi jeragk wezar rig ilar idis, jeri ejazi. Maybe (soon), they will have conquered the mountain dragons too.

ʒa nedegkdta dtivda rig wi bibpa ilar bpe ʒa bilar jerade ilar. They have proposed a treaty to us, and the queen has agreed.

Wi dtigka wagiʒ regkbis xiʒ wa. Her favorite dragon is to marry a human nobleman.

ʒa bpivraʒedt fanebpabben bpiwidtigda nedinisa wi nildtig vex. (They) say that the Tunisans are developing a potion to turn (nebas) into humans.

ʒa nebilar wilax bpegiʒ wi nedtinai kide rejavirlid. Until then, the new noblewoman is gonna get her very own pond.

Nenale vex! How nice!

Wi ja weji bilar degiʒla. I hope the queen will choose me.