Viyadish

Viyadish (or Viyädiş) is the language of Viyade people (or Viyädyä). The language is widely spoken in The Mediterranean Sea and is one of the Sacred Empire's official language. The Viyadish speaker constitute 85% population of the Princely state of East Oskan, 75% of Qağız Khanate, 35% of the Kingdom of Estana, and 20% of the Duchy of Gondval and the Kingdom of Irygia.

Viyadish is a language that belongs to Ochkhon (or Oçxon) language family. Its origin is believed to be the steppe in the central of continent, the westside of Indastra River, somewhere around lake Karqortay. Viyade migrated the the Golden Bay about 300 years ago, and spread around the Mediterranean Sea.

Viyadish's basic vocabulary contains a lot of words related to woods, berries, and snow, implying that Viyade people once inhabited in or near the subalpine zone.

Viyadish has variable of dialects around the world. Most of them have been borrowing a significant number of word from local languages, making it difficult to communicate to other Viyadish speakers from other regions. In many cases they are classified as Pidgin languages rather than dialects. This article will introduce the classical Viyadish —or canonical Viyadish— which is thought to be the closest to the original one spoken by ancient Viyade people.

Classical Viyadish is stronly aggutinative and high-context language. It has abundant suffixes and particles that conveys emotional or situational context. On the other hand, the language rarely has indication of person and number in the sentece, forcing the linstener to figure them out from the context. The gender is not indicated by grammar but instead by using different words. Honorific expression is highly developed in Viyadish, but they are precisely systemized.

The dominant word order is SOV. However, Classical Viyadish is an extreme topic-prominent language. Subject, object, and verb can be indicated as the topic by adding a suffix -nın. The topic will be located at the beginning of the sentence.

Consonants
Viyadish has consonant harmony. Typically, voiced and unvoiced sounds are exchangible to each other according to a word's suffix. All the nasal consonants (m, n and ŋ) are replacable to each other according to the following suffix of a word. There are some consonants that are never followed by specific vowels, such as /q/ to rounded vowels, /w/ to any vowels but /o/, and /ɰ/ to any vowels but /ɯ/. /dʒ/ and /ʑ/ is not distinguished in Viyadish. r and l, when coming to the end of the word, are pronounced /ɹ̝/ and /ɬ/, respectively.

Vowels
Viyadish has vowel harmony. The vowels are classified to four categories. Vowels of the suffixes will be assimilated to the vowel from the last syllable of a word. Vowels in the prefixes will be assimilited to the vowel from the first syllable of a word. A word always contain only rounded vowels, otherwise only unrounded vowels. Vowel length is clearly distinguished in Viyadish, since the length is correlated to the vowel stress. Diphthong is exrtemely few and is rare found in vocabulary. Diphthongs are /wo/, /je/, /ɰɘ/, /jø/, /ai/, /ɑi/, /ei/, /ɘi/, /ɯi/, /oi/, /øi/. However, /i/ in /ai/, /ɑi/, /ei/, /ɘi/, /ɯi/, /oi/, /øi/ is not counted as one vowel (indeed it is written as y in Viyadish) and thus does not affect the vowel harmonization.

Phonotactics
Viyadish syllable allows only V, CV and CVC. Loan words and translation will drop/add vowels to meet this requirement.


 * The onset (C) includes any consonants, but the onset of the first syllable does not allow voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ and glottal fricative, /h/
 * The nucleus (V) can be any vowel, harmonized by the vowel of the first syllable
 * The coda (C) includes /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /ʂ/, /ʐ/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/

Diphthongs are counted as two syllables. Long vowels and are counted as two morae. The coda is also counted as one mora. As a result, one syllable can account for up to three morae.

Stress

 * 1) The long vowels is always stressed.
 * 2) The first syllable is the weakest. The accent goes to the second syllable.
 * 3) You cannot stress an open syllable at the end of a word. In that case, the accent will be its second from the last syllable.
 * 4) If a noun is used as vocative, the open syllable at the end of a word will be stressed.
 * 5) Suffixes are not stressed, but affixes can.

Examples


 * ağata: to use
 * ata: to hit
 * ágat: usage
 * atumuz: to make someone hit

Writing System
For convenience of international usage, Viyadish has adopted alphabet. Viyadish alphabet does not use "W" except translated words. For /wo/, /je/, /ɰɘ/, and /jø/, we write "uo","ye","ğę", and "yö", respectively. Long vowels are described by adding acute or double acute.

Personal Pronouns
There is no distinction of gender in personal pronouns. There is neither dintinction of number, but one can add the suffix qımğı (or kimği) to indicate that the noun is plural. For particular needs of indicating gender, one can use sıhıl (a man) and xele (a woman). However, these words can only be used when one cannot identify the person (for example, you cannot use sıhıl when you already clarified that he is your brother). There is the distinction of 1st plural that includes the 2nd person (orma) or not (aňa). The former one is called inclusive and the later one is called exclusive. Viyadish is sensitive to the relation between the speaker (1st person) and the listener (2nd person); distinction of inclusiveness is one of the figures representing this characteristic.

Other Pronouns
Viyadish pronouns function quite differently from those of Indo-European languages. There are five types and four classes. The types are: object, person, location, choice, and manner. Demonstratives are pronouns that function as determiners of following nouns, such as this, that, and these in English. Viyadish demonstrative pronouns do not distinct the number of gender, but they do indicate the distance of the determined 'thing' from the speaker and the listener to four forms: proximal, mesoproximal, mesodistal, and distal. Proximal and distal works just like this and that in English, respectively. Mesodistal indicates that a thing is far away from the speaker but close to the listener. Mesoproximal is used when a thing is close to the speaker but remote from the listener. Mesoproximal is particularly used when the listener is considered to be away from the speaker, both physically and non-physically.

Sample texts

We use mesodistal to indicate something that is already mentioned before, while for something that is about to be mentioned below, we use mesoproximal.
 * Äylär orun. Ünin görgey bisi. (This is mine. Yours are out there.)
 * Şular ézléti äylär ä döldé. (Bring that table here.)
 * Şular ézléti voğul a döldeyim. (Let's bring that table here.)

Sample Texts


 * Orun abanın igye hüvey ótomóbili kumma. Köcük çının gularma oquntay ne? (My dad bought a new car again. Why is he such a spender?)
 * Confucius äylärmä mősä; Ęnlę xamuxunımı sirile ıllę qutqar. (Confucius says as following: "What you do not wish upon yourself, extend not to others.")

The other three classes of pronouns are: interrogative, indefinite, and negative. Interrogative pronoun is also known as question word. Indefinite indicates a thing that is not definite, or in other words, determined. Words such as something, anyone, everybody are indefinite pronouns. Nerative indicates that a thing does not exist. Words like none or nobody are negative pronouns. Interroggative pronouns of object, person, location, choice, and manner can be traslated to what, who, where, which, and how, respectively. Unlike question word in English, Viyadish interrogative pronouns functions purely as a noun, which means that they can declined to many cases.

Assertive pronouns of object, person, location, choice, and manner can be traslated to something, somebody, somewhere, one (in "Choose one from these"), and somehow. These pronouns do not indicate the number or gender. Elective pronouns of object, person, location, choice, and manner can be traslated to anything, anybody, anywhere, anyone, and any way. Elective pronouns spefically used to deny other things that is not included in the following word. Collective pronouns of object, person, location, choice, and manner can be traslated to everything, everybody, everywhere, everyone, and every way. However, collective pronouns are never used to describe simple plural like "everybody listen!" in English.

Sample Texts


 * Oğulun ınım? Ene, oğulú uxunum. (Is there anybody ? Oh, there isn't anybody .)
 * Volar menyüla̋n bilé yi gopşudum üğyü. (You can choose anything in this menu.)
 * Xudusırma yulán idyidim de. (There's no way we can get out.)

Noun Declension
Viyadish noun has seven cases: nominative, genitive, accusative, dative, instrumental, loactive, lative, ablative, liminative, and associative. Among these cases, dative shares the same conjugation with lative. Similarly, instrumental and locative sharethe same conjugation with ablative and limitative, respectively. Listener have to distinguish which cases are being used from the context. The conjugation is affected by vowel harmonization. The table below shows the examples of declension with words aja (mother), yette (entrance), uz̧ar (stuff), and kihik (child).


 * 1) Nominative: marking the subject of verb, or in other words, the conductor of action that is described in a sentence. For example, in the sentence "My mother loves me.", "my mother" is the noun that is marked to be nominative.
 * 2) Genitive: marking the possession or an attributive relationship to the other noun. More specifically, genetive describes relationships that include possession, composition, participation of an action, reference, and apposition. Example sentences are showed below
 * 3) * ęlqaydaxının dőrbö (an elephant's nose)
 * 4) * ye jekteyin boğar. (a cup of soup)
 * 5) Accusative: marking the direct object of a transive verb.
 * 6) Dative: marking the indirect object of a verb. For exmaple, in a sentence "He gave her flower", "her" is the indirect object of the verb "gave" and thus should be marked as dative, while "flower" is the direct object and thus should be marked as accusative. Same in Viyadish, but since accusative and dative is marked differently and clearly, it is not necessary that an accusative noun is placed after a dative noun. An example sentence is showed below.
 * 7) * Sıhılnın xeleye feçiri ılę. ([He/ to her / flower/ give/ PST .] = He gave her flower)
 * 8) * Sıhılnın feçiri ılę xeleye . ([He/ flower/ give/ to her / PST .] = He gave flower to her)
 * 9) Instrumental: marking a noun is the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. The noun may be either a physical object or an abstract concept. Instrumental also marks the components of a noun. An example is shown below.
 * 10) * Volar selip ílanulán uoççaňňumuz. (This pen is made of steel )
 * 11) Locative: marking the place or location that an action take place. Locative case does not indicate the location of the noun with other noun, like "in", "on", "at", "aside of", and so forth. To do so, Viyadish words need to be connected to locative nouns such as oqun (the bottom), törö (the top) and kisa̋ (the side).
 * 12) * Gáş gáranın ürjäybüyün buokçaňňa . (The gas station is acroess the street of the market.)
 * 13) Lative: marking the destination or the direction of motion. It corresponds to the English prepositions "to", "into", and "towards".
 * 14) Ablative: marking the origin or the starting point of motion. It is sometimes used to express motion away from something, among other uses. It corresponds to the English prepositions "from".
 * 15) Limitative: marking the finish point of motion. The difference between lative and limitative is that lative only indicates the destination, while limitative indicates that the action has been contineously done until the subject arrived at the location. An example of comparision is shown below.
 * 16) * Gáraya ábumış. (I went to the station)
 * 17) * Gáraňňa yaşlumış. (I walked all the way to the station.)
 * 18) Commutative: marking the accompaniment to other nouns. It corresponds to the English prepositions "with" in the sense of "in company with" or "together with".

Pronoun Declension
Personal pronouns decline quite irregularly. On the other hand, other pronouns decline regularly, so one should infer their forms using the declension table above.

Numerals
Viyadish has three types of numerals: cardinal, ordinal, and multiplier. Cardinal numerals are corresponding to English words one, two, three... while oridinal numerals are corresponding to English words first, second, third. Multiplier numerals in Viyadish both means the number of motion (as once, twice in English) and the number of multiplication (double, triple in English). The orgin of multiplier numbers are adding the noun aňňar (the multiplied) in the end of numbers. Over times these words customarily abbreviated and become the multiplier numerals.

Viyadish numeral is based on decimal system. The scale system is periodic by thousand.

Verbs
In Viyadish, there are two parts of speech that can construct a verb phrase: verb and adjective. There are technically no difference between verb and adjective except that adjectives have comparision form and nominalization. There is no copula which correspond to the verb to be in English, although some similar verb does exist (for example a which means to exist but never directly appears in sentences). Verbs (and adjectives) are also followed by auxiliary verbs which do not merge into verbs' (and adjectives') conjugation. Auxiliary verbs express the tense, mode, comparision, and conjunction. We'll discuss this later.

Viyadish verbs heavily conjugated by voice, aspect, ability, and negation. But before we dive into suffixes, we need to know the word stem and its conjugation form. To add suffixes, one must make the verb to its conjugative form. Terminal form is used when no suffixes are added. Imperative form indicates that the speaker is giving an order to the listener. Volitional form means that the speaker is suggesting to do something together, or thee speaker is expressing his eagerness to start the action.

Suffix
The suffixes align in the order of (1)voice, (2)ability/negation, and then (3)aspect. Suffixes of voice are shown in Table A. Suffixes of ability/negation are shown in Table B. Suffixes of aspect are are shown in Table C. Passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence undergoes the action or has its state changed. Instead of being the agent of motion, a subject of a passive-voice is the object, the patient, or the result of an action. In viyadish, a passive-voice construction does not necessarily decrease valence. Viyadish passive voice can be an adversative passive, which indicates that the action or event is upleasant and undesirable for the subject. In Viyadish, passive is dynamic unless otherwise noted. For static passive, one should attach the continuous aspect. Examples are shown below.


 * Kobak igyenda̋ğän üciňňer túnumuluz . (The dog is fed twice [a day] everyday.) = dynamic passive
 * Kobak túnumulunum jıday. (The dog is now fed.) = static passive
 * Xelenin çın juyun feçiri íňňęnılę́n fäyrülüz . (She has her garden's flower trampled on by a child.)

Causative voice indicates that the subject of the sentence caused or ordered another agent to take an action. It corresponds to "to make someone do something" in English. The alternative agency is marked as an dative case. Causative voice is somehow similar to the passive voice when the external agent has an action towards the subject itself, but unlike passive voice, the action is considered pleasant or desirable by the subject. Passive Causative is thus the agent of action who is caused, ordered, or favored to do so by some other beings. Here are some examples.

Reciprocal voice indicates that the subject and the object is acting on each other. In this case, both sides are the agents and at the same time the patients. The object noun is marked as commutative case. Unsually, reciprocal expression goes with the adverb ağadal (to each other) before the verb. But unlike English, the number of participants (both agents and patients) can be more than three. Here is an example. Middle voice is used to describe the subject undergoes the action or has its state changed, but the causer of the action is unidentified or irrelevant. In Viyadish, the subject, or the agent of action aren't focued. Instead, the language shed light on the speaker's subjective view. Thus, the topic raised by the speaker, or the result that is observed by the speaker, are more focused on. Middle voice is very compatible with this view of world, and is frequently used in Viyadish. Here is some examples.
 * Sıhılęnın büzkeri kummanak ábumuz jıday. (I just asked him go to buy the oil.)
 * Máry'nin gáraňňa Jóhn'a mótorbikkeňňe künsümüz . (Mary had John drove her to the station by his motorcycle. )
 * Ye olsun ődälyülümüz ajaya. (I was forced to study by [my] mother.)
 * Äylär bak çörqäläknin ağadal pışlıyıňın . (These four players praised each others.)

Potential indicates that the subject has the ability to do the action. It corresponds with can in English. Impotential, on the other hand, indicates that the subject does not have the ability to do the action. It corresoponds with cannot in English. Unlike can/cannot, however, these suffixes do not carry the message of allowance or prohibition like in English. Here are some examples.
 * Túnuk veňňermiş üğyü. (The meal is cooked [is ready])
 * Höz̧ür çardunum . (The window broke.)


 * Vuskoya durá koşludugum tátar. (We won't be able to see anything from here.)
 * Volar inniy áyz̧anu ostılqınęňňę yekteminim yeridim me? (Can you finish reading such a lot of book by the day after tomorrow?)

Negation simply means that the action did not take place. verbs are automatically affirmed unless otherwise marked negative. Perfect aspect: the action is done and completed by the time the claim is made. Perfect aspect also indicates that the subject has the experience of taking the action. Unlike English, however, Viyadish perfect aspect does not indicate that the time of complete is proximal to now. It just says that the action is complete at anytime in the past.

Continuous aspect: the action is being taken right now, or at least the subject is confirmed to undergo an action or being in a state at the time. Unlike English, the continuous aspect can be used for wors like know, want, agree, when the speaker does not know whether the action was taken in the past, or whether the action will be continued until certain time in the future.

Progressive aspect: action is not started but will soon begin. The action is scheduled well before or is strongly expected. It corresponds to "be going to" or "be about to" in English. In some cases with intransitive verbs, the progressive aspect can mean "to become" or "to come to".

Habitual aspect: the action is repeatedly done or technically permanently in charge. It can also be applied to something that is expected to be unchanged such as Earth orbiting around the Sun or a night that comes after a day.

Example Sentences


 * Sıhılnın Taylor'u öröyünüm a̋z̧, şular keştő öröyümüş ün biléyi olur. (He does know Taylor, but I don't know if he'd ever heard of [her] at that time.)
 * Annakneyez yerimiş de. (The homework is already done)
 * Tęlgęy yę́ş universitin ődälxa̋n anak jebye. ([I] will be a university student next year)

When a suffix is followed by other suffixes, it takes the conjugative form. For example:


 * koşluludummuş = koşlu-lu-dum-muş (have been able to see)
 * enyimirnek = enyi-mi-r-nek (be not going to name something)

Auxiliary verb
Auxiliary verbs explain tense, grammatical mood, evidentiality, and conjunction. Auxiliary verbs require the verb, adjective, or whatever part of speech they modify, to take a certain form of participation. An auxiliary verb can change its form if there are other auxiliary verbs following it. Prohibitive: the speaker prohibits the event. It requires the preceding verb to take the imperative form. Since prohibitive has no following auxiliary verbs, it does not have a conjugative configuration.

Desiderative: the speaker desires to do something himself/herself. It requires the preceding verb to take the present form.

Vollitive: the speaker wants events to happen. Volitive is different from desiderative in the point that the subject in the optative sentence is not the agent of the action. It requires the preceding verb to take the present form.

Future Tense: this indicates that the event will happen in the future. It requires the preceding verb to take the terminal form. Viyadish requires no element to indicate past or present tense. The listener has to infer whether the event took place in the past or the present from the context.

Visual, Reportative, and Speculative: they are auxiliary verbs that indicate evidentiality. Visual indicates that the speaker knows the event visually. It corresponds to the English phrase "it seems to." Reportative indicates that the speaker was informed about the event by someone. It corresponds to the English phrase "it is said to." Finally, speculative indicates that the speaker speculated the event to happen from his information. These verbs requires preceding verbs to take the present form. Tentative: the speaker is not sure/certain whether the event will happen or not, but there are possibilities to happen. Tentative requires the preceding verbs to take the present form.

Dubiative: the speaker is susceptive about whether the event happens or not. It requires the preceding verbs to take the present form.

Necessitative: it expresses plea, recommendation, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, and high probability of an event to happen. It corresponds with "should" in English in some cases. It requires the preceding verbs to take the present form.

Automatic: it indicates that an event happens without any confirmable agents or is not favored or expected to happen. It requires the preceding verbs to take the present form.

Admirative: it exhibits a sense of surprise and unpreparedness of the subject toward the event. It requires the preceding verbs to take the progressive form.

Simulative: it indicates that the subject's action or state is assimilated to the verb. It corresponds to "like doing something" in English. Simulative can be connected to perfect, present, and progressive form. Subjunctive is a type of conjunction describing an assumption, a supposition, or a hypothesis. In English, it is "if."

Concessive describes a negative assumption, like "even though."

Illlative is a type of conjunction that expresses derivation, such as "because" in English.

Adversative describes a negative derivation, which is equivalent to "although" in English.

Emphasis literally expresses the emphasis. There is no equivalent word in English.

Example Texts:


 * Sőçi Viyädişi ődälyünüm jęlıp de. (I want to study Viyadish more.)
 * Óto kersürüla̋n küväyümüşünüm şárgumuş éşte, çının sıppıynımı biléyi ola jęlıp . (Because I heard from someone that he's injured by a car accident, I want to know if he is alright now.)