Ükäntel

Consonants

 * /t l/ are truly dental [t̪ l̪] but usually transcribed without the distinguishing bar.
 * Affricates are usually transcribed without a tie bar.

Allophony

 * Stops are voiced intervocalically, following a nasal, or preceding /ʒ/, and are unvoiced otherwise.
 * /h/ appears as [x] following a back vowel, [ç] after a front vowel (and likewise /h:/ as [x:] or [ç:]) and only appears as [h] pre-vocalically.
 * If /h/ is preceded by a different fricative, /h/ will assimilate and lengthen the preceding fricative, i.e. /sh/ is realized as [s:]. This does not happen following an affricate.
 * Short /r/ is tapped while geminate /r/ is trilled.
 * Plain alveolar consonants will become palatal consonants (i.e. /n ts s r/ > [ɲ tʃ ʃ ʒ]) next to another palatal consonant
 * /nj tsj sj rj/ become [ɲ tʃ ʃ ʒ]. /j/ is elided after existing /ɲ tʃ ʃ ʒ/.
 * /ʃʒ ʒʃ/ are realized as [ʒ: ʃ:] respectively.

Allophony

 * /i y u/ are realized as [ɪ ʏ ʊ] before sonorant consonants
 * Unstressed /i/ is elided in specific, syllable-permissive environments

Phonotactics
Ukantel syllables minimally consist of only a vowel and maximally are CVC. The syllable can thus be transcribed as (C)V(C). Any consonant can appear as the onset or coda, and any single vowel can act as a syllable nucleus. /ø o/ do not appear word-finally, having become /e ɤ/ in that environment. This rule is productive, so suffixes containing the archiphoneme /O/ and no coda consonant thus may possibly have four variants due to a historical sound change.

Considering syllable boundaries, long vowels do not occur as a result of two juxtaposed morphemes and always result in an identical short vowel. Two unlike vowels in sequence are broken up by the addition of a sonorant in between the vowels, which is detailed in the morphophonology section below.

Stress
Stress is non-phonemic and falls on the first syllable of a word. Stressed vowels are pronounced significantly longer than unstressed vowels, approximately 50% to 60% longer. Vowels are not reduced when unstressed.

Orthography
Ukantel orthography is largely phonemic and even represents certain allophonic processes in the written language. The sounds are written as in IPA unless listed in the table below.
 * The word-final replacement of  with <ë e> respectively is indicated orthographically.
 * <ńś ńć ńŕ> are spelled , that is, orthographic <ń> will become  if followed by those specific consonants.
 * When /h/ assimilates to a fricative preceding it, the allophony is indicated in the orthography, i.e.  will be written as  depending on the fricative it follows.
 * Alveolar-palatal assimilation is indicated orthographically.
 * In the environment of <ń ś ć ŕ> the alveolar consonants are written with an acute accent unless the sequence is  followed by one of <ś ć ŕ>.
 * The sequences coalesce to <ń ś ć ŕ>.
 * <śŕ ŕś> remain unchanged.
 * All processes detailed in the morphophonology section are indicated orthographically.

Morphophonology
Morphophonological processes are rampant in Ukantel, including the characteristic vowel harmony, as well as partial vowel reduplication and epenthesis.

Vowel Harmony
Vowels in Ukantel pattern in front-back pairs with /i/ patterning neutrally. /y e ø æ/ alternate with /u ɤ o ɑ/ respectively, with archiphonemes being transcribed as /U E O A/. Vowels do not harmonize according to roundedness and thus all grammatical suffixes have two variants, unless the sole vowel is /i/ where one variant exists, or unless the suffix is an open syllable and contains the archiphoneme /O/ where four variants exist as per /ø o/ having become /e ɤ/ word-finally.

Reduplication
Many grammatical suffixes in Ukantel use a reduplicated vowel from the preceding syllable as its own syllable nucleus. This is transcribed in grammars using a capital V in place of the vowel. A few verbal suffixes, personal suffixes on verbs, posessive suffixes on nouns, a few case suffixes, the comparative and superlative morphemes on adjectives, as well as various derivational morphemes all utilize this process. /ø o/ do become /e ɤ/ word-finally in this instance.

Anaptyxis
Anaptyxis, or the insertion of a vowel, is necessary with certain grammatical suffixes as the stringing together of certain morphemes would violate the Ukantel syllable structure. In many instances, the reduplicated vowel detailed in the above section is only present if syllabically necessary, and this is often considered an example of anaptyxis, but is in fact separate due to various suffixes where the reduplicated vowel is always present. Some suffixes contain two consonants in what would seem to be a syllable onset, or some suffixes consist of a single consonant. If either of these types of suffixes follow a morpheme ending in a vowel, no insertion is not necessary. When following a morpheme that ends in a consonant (in both cases) or if sandwiched in between two consonants (in the latter case only), a vowel is inserted before the suffix in question, which is -E in all environments. In suffixes where two consonants ocur in what would seem to be a syllable coda, the epenthetic vowel is inserted after the suffix in question.

Excrescence
Excrescence, or the addition of a consonant, is necessary when two juxtaposed suffixes would result in a vowel sequence. The consonant inserted is always a sonorant. If the first vowel is unrounded, the in-between sonorant is /j/. Similarly, if the first vowel is rounded, the in-between sonorant is /w/.

Elision
Elision is productive in Ukantel with the consonant /j/ and the vowel /i/. In a word where multiple instances of /i/ could be elided, only the /i/ furthest from the stressed syllable is.
 * /j/ is only elided following other palatal consonants, i.e. /ɲ tʃ ʃ ʒ/.
 * The elision of /i/ happens when unstressed in certain syllabic environments.
 * VCiCV > VCCV
 * VCiC:V or VC:iCV > VCCV where the primary or secondary consonant is ungeminated respectively
 * VC1iC1C2V or VC1C2iC2V > VC1C2V

Non-verbal Morphology
Ukantel is an exclusively suffixing agglutinative language. Morphology is largely regular outside of certain stem alterations that occur due to regular morphophonologic, phonotactic (specifically word-final /O/ regularly becoming /E/), or orthographic rules. Throughout this section, archiphonemes are used. Annotations will not made where vowel epenthsis would possibly occur but will be where reduplication only occurs if syllabically necessary, denoted by an asterisk following the suffix.

Posession
Posession is indicated by a suffix in Ukantel, which precedes the case and/or number suffixes if present. With the first- and second-person plural posessor suffixes, the reduplicted vowel is always included if the posessed noun ends in a consonant, unlike other suffixes where reduplication is optional based on syllabic structure, and is omitted if the posessed noun ends in a vowel. In a noun-noun posessive construction, the posessed noun is indicated with the third person singular/plural posession suffix, which is sometimes called a construct state due to the influence of Semitic linguistics.

Case
Ukantel has 16 case suffixes, 8 singular and 8 plural; the nominative singular is unmarked. The nominative case is used to mark the subject of a sentence, more specifically, the agent of a transitive verb and the patient (also called the experiencer) of an intransitive verb.

The accusative case is used to mark the patient (also called the object) of a transitive verb. When making a transitive verb causative, both the causee (the subject of the non-causal clause) and the original object appear in the accusative case, with the causee appearing second.

The dative case is used to mark the recipient or geographical destination of an object, the object of verbs implying transfer or perception, the purpose or beneficiary of an action, as well as posession when coupled with the copula.  

The genitive case is used to mark the posessor of another noun, a noun which modifies another noun, description, geographic origin, and composition.

The instrumental case is used to mark the means by which an action is done, whether physical or abstract.

The comitative case is used to mark with whose company an action is done or to express adornment.

The temporal case is used to mark when an action is done and can be applied to numbers to mean at ___ o'clock, or to noun phrases to mean on _____.

The durative case is used to specify the length of an action or during what the action took place, meaning effectively for x ____ (where x is a numeral) or during _____ or throughout ______.

Personal pronouns
As in most languages, personal pronouns in Ukantel are irregular. The temporal and durative forms of the pronouns exist but are not used in colloquial speech, and thus are not listed in the table below. They are formed by suffixing the case edings to the nominative stem, except the first person singular, whose stem is tä. Ukantel is a pro-drop language, meaning subject pronouns are omitted unless for emphasis. The accusative case pronouns are used as reflexive pronouns. The dative pronouns are used similarly for verbs that require a dative object.


 * Yeten aśuhtolhët.
 * 1SG.ACC stand-CAUS1-NEG-PFV-1SG
 * I didn't stand up.

Demonstrative pronouns
Ukantel makes a three-way proximity distinction in its demonstratives. Demonstratives are regular across

Modifiers
Modifiers in Ukantel can be separated into three categories: Constituents of all three categories behave similarly to verbs. When used to modify a noun, there are no agreement markers and modifiers precede the head noun. When used as a predicate, modifiers take a derivational suffix and then verbal suffixes in order to agree with a subject.
 * 1) Numerals
 * 2) Non-numeral quantifiers
 * 3) Adjectives

Verbal morphology
Verbs in Ukantel are morphologically regular; there are no irregular or suppletive forms. They take a multitude of suffixes to indicate finite grammatical information and suffixes that construct non-finite forms.

Finite Verbal Morphology
Finite verbs serve as the main verb of a clause. Suffixes attach to finite verbs in a fixed order, illustrated in the table below.

Stem
The stem of a verb in Ukantel is the bare form of the verb and is a bound morpheme. Stems do not have any restrictions insofar as their syllabic structure.

Voice
The active voice in Ukantel is unmarked. There are a multitude of other morphological voice suffixes, the majority of which are different causatives. The different causative morphemes are glossed as CAUS1, CAUS2, etc, the meanings of which are explained below the table with examples. More than one voice suffix may be applied to the verb, however, doubly causative verbs are not possible morphologically and instead use a periphrastic construction. Furthermore, the meaning of a derived form is not always apparent from the meanings of the suffixes attached alone. Causative 1 indicates that the causer excercises direct physical control over the action.


 * Sanëtnë üneyetne yëtokot.
 * meat-ACC dog-1SG-ACC eat-CAUS1-CONT-1SG
 * I am feeding my dog meat.

Causative 2 indicates that the causer excercises indirect verbal control over the action.


 * Ayët ennitne śinëhënë ertäyyelhe.
 * mother-1SG father-1SG-ACC hand-3SG-ACC hold-CAUS2-PERF
 * My mother made my father hold her hand.

Causative 3  indicates that the causer exerted direct, intensive, physical over an action. This usually has some sense of violence and being against the will of the causee.


 * Cölötne öttecänähdet.
 * sister-1SG-ACC sit-CAUS3-NCS-PERF-1SG
 * I had to make my sister sit (i.e. by placing her down physically).

Causative 4 indicates that the causer has control over the action but did not interfere.


 * Sanëtnë üneyetänne yëŕhëś. 
 * meat-ACC dog-1PL-ACC eat-CAUS4-PERF-2SG
 * You let our dog eat meat.

Mode
Modality distinctions in Ukantel are diverse, with finer distinctions being made than in most languages. The table below presents the suffixes and examples can be found below. The necessitative mode indicates that the action is required.


 * Öyleyä ńesähidkit.
 * man-DAT listen-NCS-CONT-1SG
 * I have to be listening to the man.

The permissive mode indicates that the action is allowed.


 * Ayët ösne täyä ölöćeśläyür.
 * mother-1SG city-ACC 1SG-DAT leave-PRM-NEG-FUT
 * My mother will not let me leave the city.

The abilitative mode indicates that the action is able to be performed.


 * Ükäntelne senćöt.
 * Ukantel-ACC speak-ABIL-1SG
 * I can speak Ukantel.

The potential mode indicates that the action is likely.


 * Üneyet śün sokhërhë.
 * dog-1SG 2SG.ACC bite-POT-PRF
 * My dog could have bitten you.

Polarity
Negation is indicated with the suffix -l.

Tense
Morphologically, Ukantel distinguishes three tenses, of which the present tense is unmarked. Compound tenses are expressed periphrastically.

Aspect
Ukantel distinguishes between three aspects morphologically. Other aspectual meanings are conveyed through double verb constructions using auxiliaries.

Person
Similar to the posessive suffixes on nouns, the reduplicated vowel in the first- and second-person plural forms is always present if preceded by a consonant.

Non-finite Verbal Morphology
Non-finite verb forms in Ükäntel are numerous and common in the language. This includes the infinitive, gerunds, and participles. and converbs.

Infinitive
The infinitive form of a verb ends in -hE. As the infinitive is the citation form of a verb, this presents an ambiguitity concerning roots that end in vowels and roots that end in a consonant cluster or geminate consonant, as roots of the latter type end in -EhE due to anaptyxis. In a dictionary, an asterisk is placed before those forms with -EhE due to anaptyxis. In speech and writing, however, distinguishing these forms is unnecessary. The infinitive in Ukantel is found in constructions requiring two finite verbs in a single clause or to express purpose adverbially.

Participles
Participles in Ukantel function as verbal adjectives, meaning they serve to modify a noun.