Sangi/Verbs

=Verb Structure=

The verb is built around a structure which contains six “slots”. Into each of these slots can be placed only a certain kind of affix and only a certain number of a type of affix can be used in their given slot.

An overview of the slots would be this:

Auxiliary Verb

Slot 1: Modality

Slot 2: Stem

Slot 3: Aspect-Intensity-Voice

Slot 4: Conjugation

Slot 5: Mood

Slot 6: object markers

Each of these slots and there suffixes will be dealt with in detail, slot by slot and examples of verb conjugations will be given at the end to clear things up. Auxiliary verbs are rare, and many speakers are not able to construct this structure because they have never used or heard them. Typically all information is contained within the main verb complex, but when an auxiliary verb is used, the main verb appears in the second infinitive. They are so rare a construction that an example can not be provided here.

In addition to this there may also appear a word, originally a separate phrase that has not been contracted over time, which represents certain moods beyond those five represented in the verb complex itself.

Slot 1 – Modality
t[e]’ – This means “can”. Negative – ć[e]’. Conditional meaning – could.

ś[e]’ – This means “shall”. Negative – sc[e]’. Conditional meaning – should.

m[e]’ – This means “must” or “need to”. Negative – n[e]’. Conditional meaning – might, may.

w[e]’ – This means “want to”. Negative – l[e]’. Conditional meaning – would.

c[e]’ – This means “like to”. Negative – þ[e]’. Conditional meaning – would like to.

The infix -a- causes the meaning to become conditional. It causes A-Affection and is then omitted where it does this, otherwise it remains “a”.

If there is no actual modality to the verb, i.e. it is basic, then the negative markers are “i” before consonants and “r” before vowels. These markers are also negative markers in all other word classes. The conditionals are “ja” and “ra”.

When multiple modalities occur because of the use of voice suffixes in slot 3, then the modality attributed to the causal noun is prefixed to it's pronoun and the appropriate stative suffix is attached directly to it. This form, now essentially a verb, is capable of taking other suffixes which can extend its meaning, but it should not be seen as an auxiliary verb, merely a verbal pronoun and the tense and main aspect is held by the main verb, unless it is specific to the pronoun.

Slot 2 – Stem
The stem has the possibility of undergoing stem gradation and vowel mutation in order to show the different tenses and aspects.

I-mutation - This shows the future tense.

A-mutation – This shows the past tense.

Stem gradation – The weak stem shows that the action is progressive. It is formed by moving the final consonant of the stem one step in the weak direction.

Slot 3 – Apect-Intensity-Voice
There are twenty-nine suffixes which can accommodate this slot but the usual number used in any single verb complex never exceeds around five, although more extreme complexes are used as examples of the flexibility of this slot. These are preceded by “a” when used after a consonant cluster.

-st – This suffix translates roughly as “going to” or “about to”. It shows that the subject intends/intended to perform the action in the immediate future.

-s – This suffix means “begin (to)”.

-t – This means “continue (to)”.

-d – This means “for a while”.

-j – This means “finish” or “stop”

-cc – This also means “finish” but carries the implication of “quit” as it is more long term or even permanent.

-c – This is the third “finish” suffix but carries the implication that you have only stopped for a while and will perform the action again or continue to perform the previous action which is incomplete.

-sc - This suffix translates as "already".

-g – This means “resume” or continue a previously incomplete action.

-r – Translates as “on and on” and shows that the action was continued for a long period of time which may be undetermined.

-rd – Shares a similar meaning with “-r” but translates as “again an again” showing that the action was not continuous but made up of small segments. May appear as -ḑ.

-rs – This translates as “… is tired of ….-ing” or “sick of ….” When used with the intensive suffix. It is usually written as and realised as -ş.

-n – Shows that the performance was intentional.

-m – Shows that the performance was unintentional or accidental.

-ns – Shows that the action was performed only once.

-nt – shows that the action was performed many times.

-ŋŋ – This is used to mean “any more” in the negative and “still” in the positive.

-lt – This means “try to”.

-ł – This means “for a time” and relates to time period longer than that associated with the suffix “-d”.

-i – This translates as “simply”, “just” or “only” and shows that it was the only action performed by the speaker.

-ţ – “for the first time”

-ņ – “for the last time”

-p - This translates as "sometimes" or "occasionally".

-b - This translates as "often" or "regularly", something habitual but not excessive.

-w, -v - These translate as "a lot" or "more often than not". “-w” is used after consonants, “-v” after vowels.

-h - This translates as "excessively" or "more than is necessary or required" maybe “too much”

-e – This means “again”.

-ln – This means “now” and emphasises that the action is being performed at that specific time.

-ild – This translates as “(and/or/but) … (simultaneous/ at the same time)”. It is used in phrases like “you can eat and walk at the same time” where the “and walk at the same time” would become simply “ośildin”. If the verbs are conjugated identically then the second one appears in the infinitive form as shown above. For the meaning of “but” to be realised, the word “pa” precedes the verb. A preceding “o” or “w” means “or”.

-l - This means "always".

-ll – This means “forever” and shows that the action is continued uninterrupted for unimaginable amounts of time or even indefinitely, e.g. pillár – he will exist forever. It adds more emphasis to the meaning of the “-l” suffix and can actually be used alongside it to add more emphasis, e.g. pilallár - he will always exist, forever.

Three additional suffixes, attached after the others of this slot define the intensity of the action;

-o – This shows that the verb is intensive, performed with force, speed, etc.

-a – This suffix lowers the intensity of an intensive action but it cannot be used with a “moderate” verb. This suffix can only be used with an aspect suffix and is also the default vowel of that suffix.

-e – This suffix marks the lowest of intensities and shows that there was very little force or effort behind the verb. It can also be used to make a difficult action appear to be easy, to down play this difficulty, although this comes off as arrogance when used by the actor of the verb.

If two aspect suffixes are used, the suffixes of intensity can be used to make a finer definition of the intensity of the state or action.

After these vowels go the voice markers which combine with the degree markers to form the end voice-degree-aspect suffix.

A further set of suffixes fills this slot. These are the voice markers and relate to the actor of the verb. These are all marked by the structures “X-caus. VERB…” in the active voice and “VERB X-caus….” in the passive. The mark causality, permission, changes of state and “aid”. If no X is used then the meaning is automatically passive with an indefinite cause.

-o – This prefix marks the causative voice. This changes, for example, the sentence “children read books” to “they make children read books” and the sentence “he collects things” to “let’s make him collect things”. It basically comes out as “X makes/causes Y do/be Z” or “Y was made/caused to do/be Z by X”. In the first structure the sentence structure is the same but X is placed at the beginning in the causative case. In the second structure X is placed after the verb in the causative case. Y is accusative in the first and nominative in the second.

-a – This marks the permissive voice. This shows that the actor was allowed to perform the verb in the sense that it was given permission. The subject of this prefix takes the passive conjugation ending. For example “He let me run” would be “hama randaaha” and the “passive version” would be “randaaha hama” (I was allowed to run because he let me”.

-ir – This prefix means “to become” and shows that the subject's state of being or characteristics changed. When used in the active structure it means “X made be become …” and “I become … because of X” when used in the passive.

-u – This is the Adjutative voice and indicates that the action was performed with help. In the active it would mean “X helped Y do Z” and “Y was helped to do Z by X” in the passive.

The voice suffixes cannot appear on their own and must at least be combined with the suffix of general intensity.

Slot 4 – Conjugation
This slot contains the largest number of available suffixes but, unlike previous slots, only one suffix can occupy this space. The suffixes of this slot are used to separate stative and dynamic verbs as well as perfect and imperfect aspects. The verb conjugates for three persons; 1st, 2nd, 3rd. There is also a single impersonal ending used in phrases like "it is raining" where the pronoun in English is actually a dummy pronoun, making this sentence "rĕ́nas".

Conjugation suffixes come in 2 parts. The first part defines the verb class, e.g. dynamic process, cognitive stative and so on. The second part defines aspect and volition. Both parts are declined for person, but only the second part is declined for number as well. Part 1 is also open to I-affection and a-affection from part 2 suffixes.

Part 1

Part 2

To form the passive the sound "j" is inserted between the part 1 suffixes and the stem. This "j" causes I-affection of the final consonant and in doing so is ommitted. If the consonant is immune to I-affection then the "j" remains with an "a" infix afterwards.

The reflexive is represented by a suffixed -[w]u and the reciprocal by a suffixed -[j]a (where the [j] appears after vowels and "j")

NOTES:

Although the infinitive suffixes are of slot 4, they must always come at the end of the verb complex, e.g. “spi{e}johei – to speak to someone”, where the “-o” suffix makes the root verb transitive and the “-ei” suffix is at the end.

The predicate verbs must end the stem in an infixed "e" which carries the A-mutation and I-mutation which marks tense.

Slot 5 – Mood
The slot 5 suffixes show that the verb has not been performed by the time of speech but that it may be afterwards or what would happen if it was to be performed. Each mood has a suffix in the active and passive voice (shown: active, passive).

-[je]s, [ja]ś – This suffix is translated as “if” and is the first part of “if-then” statements.

-[e]n, -in – This suffix is translated as “then” and is the second part of “if-then” statements.

-[e]m, -im – This suffix marks hypothetical situations.

-[e]t, -[a]ć – This is the imperative suffix. It shows that the speaker is ordering the actor to perform the action. Unlike in English, the imperative can be directed at all persons.

-[je]r, -[a]ź – This is the optative suffix and it indicates hope that the action will take place on the part of the speaker. It is, though, usually found in interrogative sentences and is translates as “might ...?” or “please...”.

Slot 6 – Object Suffixes
The object suffixes represent the objects of a verb in the accusative case or the dative case, depending on the meaning of the verb.

-[e]a – 1st person

-[e]o – 2nd person

-[e]r – 3rd person/indefinite

=Mood=

Non-complex mood is represented in a phrase initial word which derived from a contraction of an older phrase which represented that mood. These words may pick up added meaning if the verb complex also represents mood, but generally each mood has its own word, although certain ones need an obligatory mood marker. These words do conjugate, but only very simply and not with the normal conjugation endings. They conjugated for person, number and volition but not for tense, class or perfection. There is also an infinitive form to mark a mood which is non-person specific, like the reportative moods.

Evidentiality
These moods are used to mark the source of the knowledge of the statement, whether it is from a direct or indirect source is specified in the word, and a lack of these mords indicates no attempt to reference the source. The most basic of these is a plain "indirect" knowledge, which gives no mention of source, while the others may give a source, or even multiple sources.

The basic "indirect" word is "osan-"

The other evidential moods mark the source of information. They mark whether the statement was witnessed or not, whether the information was obtained firsthand, secondhand or even thirdhand, if the statement was senseed by a specific sensory organ or not, in other words, it was seen or not seen, or whether the statement's truth comes from hearsay or a direct source, i.e. quotative.

Witness vs. Non-witness
This mood simply indicates whether the statement was witnessed or not. Usually it implies that the action was actually seen or simply heard about, but does not actually state the exact source of witness or the source of information in the opposite case. It is mainly a vague source of reliabilty, later built upon with more specific information.

The word marking witness is "nois-" and the one marking non-witness is "annois-".

Firsthand vs. Secondhand vs. Thirdhand
This 3-way distinction serves to show how far back along the "grape-vine" the source of the information is. Generally, the further back it occurs, the less reliable it is considered, but this may not always be the case.

Firsthand is marked by "and-", secondhand is marked by "st-" and third hand is marked by "ch-"

Sensory
There are 10 sensory mood markers, 5 for the senses, i.e. sight, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching, and another 5 for the lack of their use.

Sight is marked by "gh-" while it's opposite is marked by "agh-"

Hearing is marked by "j-" while it's opposite is marked by "zh-"

Taste is marked by "ches-" while it's opposite is marked by "t.es-"

Smell is marked by "shimj-" while it's opposite is marked by "s.im-"

Touch is marked by "sat-" while it's opposite is marked by "ast-"

Reportative
The reportative states whether or not the source of information was hearsay or quotative, i.e. if the information came from a direct source.

The quotative is marke by "dar-" while the hearsay word is "d.-"

Epistemic Moods
The epistemic moods mark the speakers view on the truth of the statement, whether they believe it to be true or false, whether they doubt the truth, if they have assumed it to be true and so on.

Assumptive
As the name suggests, this mood indicates that the information is assumed to be true, either because it usually is or for some other reason. It is marked by the word "tic-"

Deductive
This inidicates that the information in the statement was worked out from previous information and may sometimes translate as "thus" or "therefore" if used with the mood infinitive. It is marked by the word "picur-"

Dubitative
This indicates that the information given is under doubt. It is marked by the word "tw-"

Speculative
This indicates that the information is held to be true through speculation. It is similar to the assumptive but has a slightly different shade of meaning in that the information may not always be true. It is marked by the word "ult-"

Other Moods
There are other moods which do not neatly into the above two categories, such as the moods which mark desires, wishes, pleas or even fears and "curses", then there are the moods which express surprise or shock and finally the gnomic tense.