Lengryis

Brief Overview
Lengryis is a mixed language (like Michif in Canada) spoken several centuries from now. It is a hybrid of English, Japanese and Thai. Phrases are usually right branching, and the word order is SVO and wh in situ. Tone is used both grammatically and phonemically. The vowel system is relatively simple, but there is a complex system of consonant mutation, sandhi and allophony.

Vowels
Lengryis has 5 vowels.

i - /i/ - Must be preceded by a glide, either /j/ or /w/.

u - /ɯ/ - Is rounded to [u] when preceded by /w/. It cannot be preceded by /j/.

e - /ɛ/ - Is raised to [e] when preceded by /j/.

o - /o/ - Some speakers centralise this to /ə/ when preceded by /j/.

a - /a/ - Cannot be preceded by /j/.

Diphthongs
There are 4 diphthongs.

ea - /ea/ ~ /əa/ - Has the allophone [ia] when preceded by /j/.

iu - /yu/ - Is unrounded to [iɯ] when preceded by /j/.

au - /au/

ai - /ai/ - In rapid speech, some speakers pronounce this as [ɛi] or [ei], especially when preceded by /j/. If it is preceded by /w/, some speakers pronounced it as [oi].

Vowel Length
Vowels and diphthongs are long in the final syllables of words, and short elsewhere. Vowel length used to be phonemic, but this is no longer the case in standard Lengryis because the long vowels either became diphthongs or glide + vowel sequences.

Tone
The final syllable of each word takes one of 5 contour tones. This is used for both lexical and grammatical purposes. These are described below in terms of numbers, 5 indicating the pitch at the top of a speaker's vocal range, and 1 indicating a pitch at the bottom of a speaker's vocal range.

a - High Level (44) - Some speakers pronounce this is a High Rising Tone (45).

â - High Falling (42)

à - Low Falling (21) - Some speakers pronounce this as a Low Level Tone (22) or (11).

á - Low Rising (15)

ä - Falling Rising (314)

Non final syllables of a word take one of 2 pitches, High or Low. These are not phonemic, however and can be predicted based on the tone of the final syllable of the word.

If the final syllable has High Level Tone, High Falling Tone or Falling Rising Tone, then any preceding syllables in the word will be pronounced with a High Pitch.

If the final syllable of the word has Low Falling Tone or Low Rising Tone, then any preceding syllables in the word will be pronounced with a Low Pitch.

In words of more than one syllable, it is common for speakers to merge the High Falling and Low Falling Tones into a single Falling Tone (31). It is also common for the Low Rising and the Falling Rising Tone to merge into a single Rising Tone (24). Neither of these mergers create any new homophones, however because the non-final syllables of the word will still be pronounced with different pitches.

Consonants
Counting the number of consonant phonemes in Lengryis is difficult, because of the number of allophones and sandhi processes in the language. Lengryis speakers traditionally analyse their language as having 23 consonants, however word initially each consonant has a "Strong" and a "Weak" version. If the consonant is no longer word initial (e.g. if the word takes a prefix or is compounded), then the contrast between Strong and Weak is neutralised. Depending on the consonant, this can happen in one of 3 ways. The Strong consonant could take on the pronounciation of its Weak counterpart (whose pronunciation is unchanged), or the Weak consonant could take on the pronunciation of its Strong counterpart (whose pronunciation is likewise unchanged), or both consonants could take on a new pronunciation. Like tone, the Strong / Weak distinction is used for both grammatical purposes and also to distinguish pairs of unrelated words.

Complicating matters even further, Lengryis has many sounds that are not considered phonemes in themselves, but merely sequences of two underlying phonemes (the second one is almost always /j/ or /w/). For example a word initial [dz] is underlyingly a sequence of /nd/ and /j/.

The consonants of Lengryis are listed below in groups of 3. First the Strong variant is described, then its Weak counterpart, and finally the consonant that the Strong and Weak pairs merge into non-word initially. A consonant in bold can be a syllable coda.

ph - /ph/ - By themselves, bilabial stops and nasals are usually velarised, however the sequence /Bj/ (where B is a bilabial stop or nasal) is often pronounced as simply a palatalised consonant, without the /j/ being pronounced.

mp - /mph/

ph - /ph/ Non word initially, this consonant is lightly aspirated if at all. It is common to pronounce it as a tenuis stop [p].

p - /p/ - Word initially, some speakers give this a weakly ejective pronunciation.

b - /b/ - Word initially, this is pronounced with a slack voiced pronunciation about 50% of the time.

b - /b/ - In syllable codas, this is in free variation with [p].

bh - /ɓ/ - Strongly imploded, contrasts with /b/ in many words.

mb - /mb/ - This is sometimes heard with stiff voice, and occasionally even creaky voice.

bh - /ß/ - This is in free variation with /v/. The sequence /ßj/ is pronounced as [ɥ]. The sequence /ßw/ is usually pronounced simply as [w].

mh - /mʔ/

m - /m/

m - /m/

f - /f/ - The combination /fj/ is pronounced as [çw], and the combination /fw/ is pronounced as [fɣ] word initially.

j - /ɣ/ - Word initially, the combination /ɣj/ is pronounced as [v], and the combination /ɣw/ is pronounced as [w].

f - /f/ - The combination /fj/ is heard as [çw], and the combination /fw/ is heard as [ʍ]. In syllable codas, this is in free variation with [v].

t' - /t'/ - Unlike the other coronal stops which are usually dental, the ejective is usually alveolar.

t - /t/

t - /t/ - In a syllable coda, this is pronounced as [θ] or [ð].

th - /th/

nth - /nth/

th - /θ/

d - /d/

nd - /nd/ - The sequence /ndj/ is pronounced as [dz].

d - /z/ - This can coalesce with /j/ into a voiced palatal fricative [ʝ]

dh - /ɗ/

dv - /ð/

dh - /d/

nh - /nʔ/ - All dental nasals, whether glottalised or voiced, coalesce with /j/ to form a palatal nasal [ɲ] or [ɲʔ].

n - /n/

n - /n/

s' - /ts'/ - This is always an affricate.

s - /ts/

s - /ts/ - In a syllable coda this is unspecified for lateralness i.e. it is in free variation with [tɬ]

'sv - /s/ - Word initially, the sequence /sj/, is pronounced as [ʈʂ].

v - /θ/ - Word initially, the sequence /θj/ is pronounced as [ʂ]

v - /ð/ - Non word initially, the sequence /ðj/ is pronounced as [s], and the sequence /ðw/ is pronounced as [sw].

z - /z/ - Word initially, the sequence /zj/ is pronounced as [ɮ].

y - /j/ - Word initially, the sound [ɭ] can be heard, but this is underlyingly /jj/. Word initially, the sequence /jw/ is pronounced as [ɥ]

z - /ɣ/ - Non word initially, the sequence /ɣj/ is pronounced as [ɮ]. In syllable codas, this is in free variation with a palatal fricative.

lh - /ɬ/

l - /l/ - This is in free variation with [ɫ]. The combination /ly/ is usually heard as [λ].

l - /l/ - This is in free variation with [ɫ]. The combination /ly/ is usually heard as [λ].

rh - /ʁ/ - This is in free variation with [r], [ʀ], [ɹʀ] - These sounds are in free variation. The combination /rj/ is pronounced as a retroflex approximant /ɻ/.

r - /ɹ/ - This consonant is palatalised when followed by a /j/, which is usually not pronounced.

r - /ɹ/ - Some speakers pronounced this as a tap [ɾ] when it is between vowels. This consonant is palatalised when followed by a /j/, which is usually not pronounced.

c - /kh/ - The combination /khj/ is pronounced as a palatal aspirated stop [ch]. The combination /khw/ is usually pronounced as a doubly articulated stop [kph], but only if it is word initial.

ch - /x/ - The combination /xj/ is pronounced as a pharyngeal fricative [ħ]. The combination /xw/ is pronounced as a labialised pharyngeal fricative [ħw].

c - /kh/ - Word internally, this is in free variation with unaspirated [k].

k' - /k'x/ - Any sequence /Kj/ (where /K/ is a velar affricate) is pronounced as a palatal affricate.

k - /kx/

k - /gɣ/ - In syllable codas, this is pronounced as [k].

kh - /kxh/

nk - /ŋkh/

kh - /kx/

ngh - /ŋʔ/ - The combination /ŋʔj/ is pronounced as a palatal implosive [ʄ]. The combination /ŋʔw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated glottalised nasal [ŋmʔ].

ng - /ŋ/ - The combination /ŋj/ is pronounced as a retroflex fricative [ʐ]. The combination /ŋw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated nasal [ŋm]. Both these rules only apply word-initially.

ng - /ŋ/ - After a consonant, this is pronounced and written as a voiced stop g - /g/. Non word initially, the combination /ŋj/ is pronounced as just [j].

tq - /txh/ - This is a non-homorganic affricate. The stop component is dental, and the fricative release is usually either velar or uvular [thχ]. Some speakers release it into an uvular trill [thʁ], or less commonly an alveolar (usually fricative) trill [thr]. A few speakers simply pronounce this as an aspirated uvular stop [qh] or an uvular affricate [qχh]. The combination /txhj/ is pronounced as an aspirated retroflex affricate [ʈʂh], and the combination /txhw/ is pronounced as a labialised retroflex affricate [ʈʂhw]

tsh - /tsh/

tsh - /ɬ/ - The prestige pronunciation of this is a lateral affricate [tɬh], but much more often it is a lateral fricative.

q' - /q'/ - The combination /q'j/ is pronounced as [kj], and the combination /q'w/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated ejective [kp'].

q - /q/ - The combination /qj/ is pronounced as [k], and the combination /qw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated tenuis stop [kp], but only word initially.

q - /ʔ/ - This used to be a pharyngeal stop [ʕ], and although this pronounciation is becoming archaic ,it can still be heard

l' - /ɺʔ/ - Utterance initially (and sometimes phrase initially), this is usually pronounced as a glottal stop [ʔ]. The combination /ɺʔj/ is usually pronounced as a palatalised glottal stop, and likewise the combination /ɺʔw/ is usually pronounced as a labialised glottal stop. Except in the two cases just described, if the preceding word ends in a consonant then this phoneme is only pronounced in extremely careful speech.

' - /H/ - This phoneme is not in the IPA, but could best be described as a creaky voiced [h]. The combination /Hj/ is pronounced as a creaky voiced [j] or [ç], and the combination /Hw/ is pronounced as a creaky voiced /w/.

l' - /ɺʔ/ - This is deleted when not between two vowels. It is only glottalised in the most careful speech, and most speakers merge this into /l/ when it is between two vowels. Speakers who pronounce r as [ɾ] between vowels (instead of the usual [ɹ]) also sometimes pronounce l' as [ɾ].

x - /h/ - The combination /hj/ is pronounced as [ç], and the combination /hw/ is pronounced as [ʍ].

h - /ɦ/ - The combination /ɦj/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [j], and the combination /ɦw/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [w].

h - /ɦ/ - The combination /ɦj/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [j], and the combination /ɦw/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [w].

In monosyllabic words only, the Strong and Weak initial consonants can be used interchangably. The Weak form is normally used, and the Strong form is used for emphasis e.g. hêa [ɦê:a] - 5, xêa [hê:a] - Five!

Gemination
Any consonant that can occur word internally can be geminated if it is the onset of the final syllable of a non-monosyllabic word, and the preceding syllable ends with either a vowel, /ɹ/ or /ɣ/. In the orthography, this is written as a hypen before the consonant that is geminated i.e. (-t) indicates a geminate t /tt/. Lengryis speakers traditionally analyse this as a property of the word as a whole, similar to tone, as if the word takes a suffix the gemination will shift to the onset of the final syllable. e.g. The root "lwa" with gemination means victimise, and without gemination means wait. By themselves the words are indistinguishable, but when affixed the resultant words are different. Here are the words after attaching the suffixes (l'a) meaning a person who does an action, and (khwon) meaning a person who is affected by an action, and with the atelic verb prefixes (nt) for the active voice and (ngye) for the passive voice, we can construct the following words:

lwa-l'a [lwaɺɺa:]- a victimiser

lwal'a [lwaɺa:] - someone who waits

lwa-khwon [lwakkxwo:n] - a victim

lwakhwon [lwakxwo:n] - someone who another person is waiting for

nta-lwá [nthallwá:] - to victimise (atelic)

ntalwá [nthalwá:] - to wait (atelic)

ngye-lwá [ʐellá:] - to suffer from victimisation (atelic)

ngyelwá [ʐelá:] - to have someone wait for you (atelic)

If r - /ɹ/ and z - /ɣ/ are geminated, then they are pronounced as [ʔɹ] and [ʔɣ] respectively as in the following words. (Remember that l' is deleted when not between vowels).

mha-za [mʔaʔɣa:] - silk maker

mhaza [mʔaɣa:] - renewer

mhaz-khwon [mʔaxkkxwo:n] - one who has silk made for him / her.

mhazkhwon [mʔaxkxwo:n] - one who has something renewed for him

nta-màz [ntammà:ɣ] - to make silk (atelic)

ntamàz [ntamà:ɣ] - to renew (atelic)

ngye-màz [ʐemmà:ɣ] - to have silk made for you (atelic)

ngyemàz [ʐemà:ɣ] - to have something renewed for you (atelic)

The tone changes in the verbs derived from the nouns are regular. In the first two words, the atelic verb has Low Rising Tone because the noun roots began with a Weak initial consonant (l) - /l/. In the latter two words the atelic verb has Low Falling Tone because the noun roots began with a Strong initial consonant (mh) - /mʔ/.

Phonotactics
The range of possible syllables is much less than English. The range of syllable structures is C (j / w) V (ɹ / ɣ) (C). (V stands for a vowel or a diphthong). If there are two consonats in the syllable coda, the second cannot be /ɹ/ or /ɣ/. Voicing is not phonemic for syllable codas, they have the same voicing as the following consonant.

Noun Morphology
Lengryis noun roots are divided into two categories, Monosyllabic and Multisyllabic. The overwhelming majority of Multisyllabic roots consist of two syllables. The number of roots consisting of three or more syllables is extremely small and almost all of these are loan words.

Monosyllabic roots can never occur by themselves, but must take a suffix depending on what type of object the noun is. Lengryis has an enormous number of nouns that were derived from another noun by changing this suffix e.g. from mhea-tyea [mʔeattje:a] - a horse (belonging to the animal class), we can make new words like mhea-l'a [mʔeaɺɺa:] - a horse trainer, mhea-khon [mʔeakkxô:n] - a horse rider, mhea-nyin [mʔeaɲɲi:n] - a professional horse rider and mhea-zyin /mʔeaɮɮi:n/ - a nomadic race. To create abstract nouns, the monosyllabic root is reduplicated e.g. mhea-mea [mʔeamme:a] - something to do with horses. Below is a list of common noun suffixes (if two are listed together, the former implies a larger object than the latter):

tyea [tje:a] - for animals, furniture

l'a [ɺa:] - for someone or something performing an action (usually human)

khon [kxo:n] - for someone or something (usually human) receiving either a benefit or a negative effect

nyin [ɲi:n] - for humans in a profession

zyin [ɮi:n] - for nationalities or races of humans

twon [two:n] - for plants, clothes

hwon [ɦwo:n] / thaing [θa:iŋ]- for long thin inanimate objects

bhean [ße:an] / rwong [ɹwo:ŋ] - for objects with a hole in them e.g. doors, windows, gates, donuts, rings, bracelets.

lwiub [lwi:ub] - for pictures of another object

lwum [lwu:m] / khan [kxa:n] - for vehicles

khwiu [kxwiu] - for pairs of things

fwang [ʍa:ŋ] - for eggs, embryos, foetuses

veaz [ðe:aɣ] / theang [θe:aŋ]- for roads, rivers, train lines, paths

kwang [gɣa:ŋ] - for organised groups of things

kwan [gɣa:n] - for objects without a constant shape e.g. clouds

khwa [kxwa:] - for ideas, concepts, beliefs, philosophies

kheang [kxe:aŋ] - for body parts

khizt [cçi:çθ] - for lines

daz [za:ɣ] - for machines

(n)gean [ŋe:an] / [ge:an] - for documents

swut [tswu:θ] - for microscopic and barely visible objects

dyeang [ʝe:aŋ] - myet [mje:θ] - for roughly spherical objects

dwak [zwa:k] - for smells, tastes and patterns

deam [ze:am] - for non mechanical tools

thiz [θi:ɣ] - for places

bhaz [ßa:ɣ] / maz [ma:ɣ] - for flat, thin objects

Multisyllabic nouns cannot take the above suffixes.

Singulative / Plural System
Lengryis has a Singulative / Plurative system. Nouns with a High Tone on the final syllable are Singulative, and Nouns with a Falling Tone are Plurative e.g. mhea-tyea [mʔeattje:a] - horse becomes mhea-tyêa [mʔeattjê:a] - horses. Uncountable nouns are arbitrarily assigned as either Singulative or Plurative e.g. mhyizdû [mʔjiɣzû:] - water is Plurative, and nakhwan [nakxwa:n] - urbanisation is Singulative. Diminutives can be formed from uncountable nouns that are normally Plurative by changing them to the Singulative form (by means of a tone change) e.g. mhyizdu [mʔjiɣzu:] - a little water. Likewise augmentatives can be formed from uncountable nouns that are normally Singulative by changing them into the Plurative e.g. nakhwân - [nakxwâ:n] - super-urbanisation.

There are a few nouns that have very different meanings depending on whether they take the Singulative or Plurative e.g. `yizmbizn [Hjiɣmbi:ɣn] - permanent marking (Singulative), `yizmbîzn [Hjiɣmbi:ɣn] - permanent obstacle (Plurative). (Note that the [H} here means a creaky voiced [h]).

Numbers
If the noun is indefinite, then numbers come after it e.g. mhea-tyêa véam [mʔeattjê:a θé:am] - three horses, mhea-tyêa vyì [mʔeattjê:a ʂì:] - four horses, tazbhwû véam [taɣwû: θé:am] - three stables. If the noun is definite, then numbers come before it, and are followed by the particle 'wâf [Hwâ:f] e.g. véam 'wâf mhea-tyêa [θé:am Hwâ:f mʔeattjê:a] - the three horses. Ordinal numbers also come before the noun they modify, with the particle mbân [mbâ:n] in between e.g. véam mbân mhea-tyea [θé:am mbâ:n mʔeattje:a] - the third horse. If another noun is used to quantify the noun being counted, then it comes before 'wâf e.g. tazbhwû véam 'wâf mhea-tyêa [taɣwû: θé:am Hwâ:f mʔeattjê:a] - three stables of horses, véam 'wâf tazbhwû 'wâf mhea-tyê'a [θé:am Hwâ:f taɣwû: Hwâ:f mʔea-ttjêa] - the three stables of horses or véam mbân tazbhwu `wâf mhea-tyêa - [θé:am mbâ:n taɣwu: Hwâ:f mʔeattjêa] - the third stable of horses.

Here are the numbers

1 - nùng [nù:ŋ]

2 - vwáng [θwá:ŋ]

3 - véam [θé:am]

4 - vyì [ʂì:]

5 - hêa [ɦê:a]

6 - hwòk [ɦwok]

7 - syèt [tsjè:θ]

8 - bàit [bà:iθ]

9 - kêar [kxê:aɹ]

10 - vyìzb [ʂì:ɣb]

11 - vyìzb `yèt [ʂì:ɣb Hjè:θ]

12 - vyìzb vwáng [ʂì:ɣb θwá:ŋ]

13 - vyìzb véam [ʂì:ɣb θé:am]

...

20 - yî vyìzb [jî: ʂì:ɣb]

21 - yî vyìzb `yèt [jî: ʂì:ɣb Hjè:θ]

22 - yî vyìzb vwáng [jî: ʂì:ɣb θwá:ŋ]

...

30 - véam vyìzb [θé:am ʂì:ɣb]

31 - véam vyìzb `yèt [θé:am ʂì:ɣb Hjè:θ]

32 - véam vyìzb vwáng [θé:am ʂì:ɣb θwá:ŋ]

...

40 - vyì vyìzb [ʂì: ʂì:ɣb]

41 - vyì vyìzb `yèt [ʂì: ʂì:ɣb Hjè:θ]

42 - vyì vyìzb vwáng [ʂì: ʂì:ɣb θwá:ŋ]

...

100 - lwáz [ lwá:ɣ]

101 - lwáz `yèt [lwá:ɣ Hjè:θ]

102 - lwáz vwáng [lwá:ɣ θwá:ŋ]

...

200 - vwáng lwáz [θwá:ŋ lwá:ɣ]

...

1,000 - mpan [mpha:n]

...

10,000 - mùn [mù:n]

...

100,000 - vyìzb mùn [ʂì:ɣb mù:n]

...

110,000 - vyìzb `yèt mùn [ʂì:ɣb Hjè:θ mù:n]

...

1,000,000 - lwáz mùn [lwá:ɣ mù:n]

...

10,000,000 - mpan mùn [mpha:n mù:n]

...

100,000,000 - 'wôk [Hwô:k]

So the number 235,714,689 would be vwáng wôk véam mpan hêa lwáz syèt vyìzb nùng mùn hwòk lwáz bàit vyìzb kêar [θwá:ŋ Hwô:k véam mpha:n ɦê:a lwá:ɣ tsjè:θ ʂì:ɣb nù:ŋ mù:n ɦwok lwá:ɣ bà:iθ ʂì:ɣb kxê:aɹ]

Adjectives
All adjectives are derived from nouns by a regular process. They are divided into two categories, Permanent and Temporary, and must agree with the noun they modify (which they precede) in number and animacy.. Lengryis only has Attributive adjectives (like the blue as in "the blue sky"). Where English would use a Predicative adjective (like the blue as in "the sky is blue"), Lengryis verbalises the noun instead.

Permanent Adjectives
Permanent adjectives are used to describe qualities inherent in a particular noun, in other words the speaker believes that the noun has always been and will always be that way. They are derived from Monosyllabic-Root nouns by removing any suffixes and replacing them with -na when describing animate nouns and -nwo when describing inanimate nouns. If they describe a Singulative noun, the final syllable has High Tone, and if they describe a Plurative noun. it has Falling Tone e.g.

mhea-tyea [mʔeattje:a] - horse

feangtwon [feaŋtwo:n] - straw (more specifically a clump of straw)

mhea-nwo feangtwon - [mʔeannwo: feaŋtwo:n] - a clump of horse straw i.e. straw for horses

mhea-nwô feangtwôn - [mʔeannwô: feaŋtwô:n] - clumps of horse straw i.e. straw for horses

feangna mhea-tyea [feaŋna: mʔeattje:a] - a straw horse i.e. a horse made of straw

feangnâ mhea-tyêa [feaŋnâ: mʔeattjê:a] - straw horses i.e. horses made of straw

Sometimes the -nwo suffix is used even when the noun described is animate. This is implies that the adjective describing the noun is somehow much greater / more powerful / more superior than the noun being described e.g.

ngwadha - [ŋmada:] - God

khabha - [kxhaßa:] - singer

ngwatnwo khabha - [ŋmaθnwo: kxhaßa:] - a God singer i.e. a Gospel singer, who might be associated with God, but is not considered divine him/herself.

ngwatna khabha - [ŋmaθna: kxhaßa:] - a God singer i.e. a music superstar, who the speaker believes is divine.

For Multisyllabic-root nouns, the suffix -na is replaced with the particle l'yì [ʔjì:], and the suffix -nwo is replaced by the particle kù [kxù:]. Both of these particles follow the adjective e.g.

t'aleat [t'ale:aθ] - market

kemwu [kxemwu:] - camel

kemwu kù t'aleat [kemwu: kù: t'ale:aθ] - a camel market

t'aleat l'yi kemwu [t'ale:aθ ʔjì: kemwu:] - a market camel e.g. a camel sent to the market