Bengedian

Consonants
Bengedian possesses the following consonant phonemes:

Vowels
Bengedian's vowels are:

Allophony
The following allophonic realizations (in no particular order :P) are seen in standard Bengedian:


 * Intervocalic voicing of fricatives
 * /ɹ/ becomes a flap /ɾ/ between vowels
 * Unstressed vowels tend to relax. That is, /a e i o u/ > /ə ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/. Except for the rule /a/ > /ə/, this does not apply to final syllables.

Stress and intonation
Bengedian, like English, is a stress-timed language.

Phonotactics
Coming soon... :D

Orthography
Bengedian is written using its own alphabet, which though I could put it up, I couldn't show you texts with it cuz there's no font for it (and all the good font-making programs 'COST MONEY...' blech. Or they're for Unix, and Cygwin didn't work for me.) Anyways...

Or you could just use our trusty Roman alphabet like I'm doing here. The following letters are used:

A B C Č D E F G H I K L M N O P R S Š T U W Y a b c č d e f g h i k l m n o p r s š t u w y

While this transliteration is for the most part one-to-one, there are some complications:
 * The Bengedian alphabet does not distinguish c and k. I do so here to make it easier for Anglophones--that would be you if you're reading this :D-- to make it clear that the letter represents /k/ not /s/ in all cases. I must stress, however that I'm inconsistent with this, and to remember that c is always hard.
 * I use the digraph th to represent /θ/ where the Bengedian alphabet uses a single letter.
 * I use the letters č and š to represent the phonemes /t͡ʃ/ and /ʃ/ respectively.

Declension of nouns and adjectives
Bengedian nouns, pronouns, and adjectives decline for case and number. There is no grammatical gender. Adjectives agree in case and number with their head nouns and take the same endings.

There are six "declensions" in Bengedian. Which class a noun or adjective falls into is determined by form alone, depending on the word's final sound in the nominative singular: a consonant, /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, or /u/. The noun and adjective declension is given below, one for each class:

Notice how:
 * The nominative and accusative are mostly identical, but nouns and adjectives ending in a consonant take a final -e in the accusative singular.
 * The dative singular -e on words in -i.

Verbs
Verbs are conjugated for three tenses (past, present, future) with four distinct endings in each tense: one for each person in the singular, and one in the plural. The plural verb takes the same ending for all persons; person is not distinguished on the verb in the plural. :-)

In addition, a verb consists of two non-finite forms (infinitive, past participle).

The different classes of verb are given below: Notice:
 * The past tense seems to have a certain element that reminds one of, oh say, Germanic weak verbs for instance. I'll confess to borrowing here :-D
 * The participle ending is normally -ec. For verbs with a stem in -c already (the infinitive -em doesn't count as part of the stem), use -eth instead--they mean the same thing.
 * For the past tense of verbs whose stems end in -p or -c, the ed of the past tense becomes a t instead.

Personal pronouns
The indefinite pronouns in the 2nd and 3rd persons are used when the subject's identity is unknown. For example,
 * Wa e fašem thu, siset cu thiki!
 * Whoever is doing that, stop now!


 * Tom, siset cu thiki!
 * Tom, stop now!

Demonstrative pronouns
The demonstrative thu is also used as a definite article.

Relative and interrogative pronouns
These pronouns correspond roughly to English that/which and who?/what? respectively. There are several contracted forms such as:
 * kie, from ke e, "which is", and its other forms kea, ket, kemon, keda, kedat, ked, kedon, keum, keunt, keume, keumon
 * carke, carwa, meaning "when"
 * šoke, šowa, meaning "where"
 * kešu, wašu, meaning "how"

The relative pronoun ke is also used as a general subordinator, used to mark sentential arguments:


 * Loseda ke de e nec.
 * I said that you're bad.

Syntax and phrase-level semantics
Phew, we're all done with the tables, finally. Seriously, do you know how much effort it takes to type one of those things?

Eh, but I digress.

Here is where I cover Bengedian syntax: the types of sentences allowed. I will also cover the semantics of them, that is, what those constructions actually mean.

Basic word order and headedness
Bengedian declarative sentences SVO word order, just like English.
 * Sa sordeda thu dule.
 * I closed the door.

Other sentence types
Simple yes/no questions are just indicated with a rising intonation in speech, or by a question mark in writing. There is no syntactic difference.


 * Fašedat des sérofašen?
 * Did you do your work?

Questions are formed by fronting the phrase headed by the queried item.


 * Was lengeš de cosedat?
 * Whose length did you measure?

The use of pronouns
Demonstratives and quantifiers always precede their heads; relative clauses come after.


 * Sa sordeda thu dule kie yarec yo albeges.
 * I closed the door which is made of wood.

And yes, it is indeed possible to say "I closed the wooden door", but that's in the next subheading.

Bengedian is pro-drop; the subject pronoun can be omitted and the sentence remains grammatical:


 * Sa sordeda thu dule.
 * Sordeda thu dule.
 * I closed the door.

Noun phrase order
A noun phrase in the genitive case can modify another noun phrase, similar to English possessive 's.


 * Thus bermos con e ašo und.
 * That man's dog is very big.

Adjectives
Adjectives phrases (APs) can either precede or follow their head nouns.
 * Sa sordeda thu laica dule.
 * Sa sordeda thu dule laica.
 * I closed the little door.

This placement affects the semantics of adjective coordination. Compare English "the big and colorful ball" versus "the big ball and the colorful ball" (though it could be argued that the latter is actually a coordination of NPs). Bengedian makes the same distinction, albeit using different construction:


 * Thum alben unden at álbecoren
 * The big and green trees (the trees that are both big and green)


 * Thum unden at álbecoren alben
 * The big and green trees (the big trees and the green trees)

Verb phrases
The Bengedian verb phrase shares many similarities with the English verb phrase.

Direction words that modify verb objects always come before the verb, e.g. am loem "to look at".

Bengedian makes use of auxiliary verbs to refer to complex nuances and relationships. An example:


 * Thu šritec sera fašem ec am loec carke sre elada.
 * That paper has to have been looked at when I come back.


 * ''Ke thu bermo sere fašem ec rin sindem canare.
 * That man could have to have been running away.

The passive
The Bengedian passive voice is formed by:
 * 1) Putting the subject in the genitive case
 * 2) Inverting subject and object
 * 3) Using em+participle in the verb phrase.

Example: Thu lumi  ide        edec     thus        bermos. that apple be-3s.PRET eat-PART that-GEN.Sg man-GEN.Sg "That apple was eaten of that man" The apple was eaten by the man.

Derivational morphology
There are several ways in Bengedian to derive one word from another "base" word:

Affixation
This is the most common form of derivation. A derivational affix is simply appended onto the base.


 * šrit "write" : šritom "writer" : šritec "text"
 * ples "trade" : plešo "market" : plestu "money" : plésadir "economy"

Derivations on verbs are affixed to the stem, (that is, the bare verb without any endings. The infinitive ending -em, while considered part of the verb's citation form, is not considered part of the stem.) So:


 * irem "to exist" : neírem "to not exist" buneirem "to die" : buneíryem "to kill".

The copula em "to be" has the irregular stem es:

Infixation
One of the rarer methods, a direction word or quantifier is infixed to the last syllable of the root.


 * uwa "sheep" : udiwa "wool"

Infixes can't be nested.

Zero derivation
A lot of words can be converted between two parts of speech by zero derivation:


 * donad "group, category" (noun) : donad "to classify" (verb)
 * dols "to sit" (verb) : dols "chair" (noun)
 * wadu "water" (noun) : wadu "to douse" (verb) : wadu "wet" (adjective)
 * ut "up" (noun) : ut "to rise" (verb) : ut "high, tall" (adjective)

Vowel change
This is a very rare method, and the rules governing it are very, very complicated. It shares some aspects with Indo-European ablaut; for example, certain syllables tend to reduce to a sort of "zero grade" if the resulting cluster is phonotactically valid:


 * soc "rock" : scund "boulder"

Derivations may be made by changing the vowels of certain syllables:


 * irem "to exist" : arem "to appear"

Compounds
Bengedian, much like English and all Germanic languages for that matter (I personally get kicks out of those super-long German compounds :-D), allows compounding. Compounding is the process by which multiple free morphemes (or compounds) join together into a single unit. A compound is grammatically a single word. Examples of compounds in English include "blackboard", "jumprope", "textbook", "Spongebob".

Bengedian compounds are usually head-final, but can be head initial sometimes, and can be in any of the following patterns:
 * direction+verb: rinserem "to take away, steal, confiscate" from rin "away from", serem "to have"
 * direction+noun: ampucem "to breathe" from am "on, in(to), at", puc "air"
 * verb+verb: nuspirem "to learn" from nus "think", pir "to take"
 * noun+noun: álbecor "green" from alb "tree", cora "color"
 * verb+noun: wicwaduec "beverage" from wic "take", wadu "water", -ec verbal noun/past participle
 * noun+verb: loydal "sun" from loy "light", dal "to give"
 * adjective+noun: yaldrap "gold (metal)" from yal "yellow", drap "metal"

Long words are often phonologically reduced when compounded.