Wayaliss

Characteristics
In comparison with its ancestor language, Wayaliss features some innovations such as definite articles and loss of grammatical cases in nouns and adjectives.

Phonology
All words are stressed on the last syllable.

Consonants
The semivowels y and w can be combined with the soft aspiration h, forming the groups hy and hw. The standar pronunciation has these as simple combinations of h plus semivowel, but many speakers pronounce them as voiceless approximants [j̊] (hy) and [ʍ] (hw).

While x [x] is somewhat rare, both h [h] and r [ʀ] are very common in the language.

Vowels
Vowels are:

Stressed vowels are marked with an acute accent. The vowels e and o are generally closed.

Articles
The definite article is ' for masculine and ' for feminine. It comes immediately before the nouns.

Nouns
There are two gender of nouns: masculine and feminine. Plural of nouns is highly irregular.

Except for the Absolutive, grammatical cases are expressed by means of prepositions:


 * 1) Ergative: 
 * 2) Accusative: 
 * 3) Genitive: 
 * 4) Dative: 
 * 5) Locative: 
 * 6) Instrumental: 

Masculine Nouns
Common plural endings:
 * 1) -wes
 * 2) -es
 * 3) -ws
 * 4) -ew
 * 5) -ges
 * 6) -ks
 * 7) -f
 * 8) -ns

Examples:
 * ' "man", "person" - Plural: '

With article, case markers and plural ending:
 * 1) Indefinite
 * 2) Singular
 * 3) Accusative: ko nan
 * 4) Genitive: pe nan
 * 5) Dative: in nan
 * 6) Locative: hwa nan
 * 7) Instrumental: su nan
 * 8) Plural
 * 9) Accusative: ko nanges
 * 10) Genitive: pe nanges
 * 11) Dative: in nanges
 * 12) Locative: hwa nanges
 * 13) Instrumental: su nanges
 * 14) Definite
 * 15) Singular
 * 16) Accusative: ko no nan
 * 17) Genitive: pe no nan
 * 18) Dative: in no nan
 * 19) Locative: hwa no nan
 * 20) Instrumental: su no nan
 * 21) Plural
 * 22) Accusative: ko no nanges
 * 23) Genitive: pe no nanges
 * 24) Dative: in no nanges
 * 25) Locative: hwa no nanges
 * 26) Instrumental: su no nanges

Feminine Nouns
Common plural endings:
 * 1) -eges
 * 2) -eg
 * 3) -ges
 * 4) -eks
 * 5) -yes
 * 6) -ef

Examples:
 * ' "family" - Pl.: '

With article, case markers and plural ending:
 * 1) Indefinite
 * 2) Singular
 * 3) Accusative: ko hwenereh
 * 4) Genitive: pe hwenereh
 * 5) Dative: in hwenereh
 * 6) Locative: hwa hwenereh
 * 7) Instrumental: su hwenereh
 * 8) Plural
 * 9) Accusative: ko hwenereyes
 * 10) Genitive: pe hwenereyes
 * 11) Dative: in hwenereyes
 * 12) Locative: hwa hwenereyes
 * 13) Instrumental: su hwenereyes
 * 14) Definite
 * 15) Singular
 * 16) Accusative: ko me hwenereh
 * 17) Genitive: pe me hwenereh
 * 18) Dative: in me hwenereh
 * 19) Locative: hwa me hwenereh
 * 20) Instrumental: su me hwenereh
 * 21) Plural
 * 22) Accusative: ko me hwenereyes
 * 23) Genitive: pe me hwenereyes
 * 24) Dative: in me hwenereyes
 * 25) Locative: hwa me hwenereyes
 * 26) Instrumental: su me hwenereyes

Adjectives
Adjectives are not declined at all.

Attributive adjectives come before the noun.

Superiority
The suffix -el- is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.:
 * ' "large", ' "larger"
 * ' "new", ' "newer"
 * ' "good", ' "better"

Superlative
The prefix sen- is added to the stem of the adjective. Ex.:
 * kamt "large",  "the largest"
 * mup "new",  "the newest"
 * pun "good",  "the best"

Personal
1st and 2nd person pronouns have special forms, while the 3d person pronouns use prepositions like regular noun endings.

1st and 2nd Person Pronuns
The use of case particles with 1st and 2nd person pronouns is dialectical, but it is not considered completely wrong in the standard language.

Possessive
Possessive pronouns are declined like any other adjective.

Demonstrative

 * iv "this" (very near)
 * sit "this" (not so near)
 * gir "that" (far)

There are two manners of using the demonstratives:
 * 1) before the noun: iv nan "this man", gir nanges "those men"
 * 2) after the noun, which is preceeded by the definite article: no nan iv "this man", no nanges gir "those men".

These forms are equivalent and regular in the language, but the second (with the definite article) is used more in colloquial speech than in writing. Also, the form sit tends to be replaced by iv in colloquial speech.

Interrogative

 * hyu "what"
 * nu "who"
 * gu "which"
 * ne "how"
 * tir "where"
 * tu "when"

Relative

 * hyu "that"
 * nu "who"

Indefinite

 * nuknu "some", "any"
 * numnu "no", "none"
 * uttu "all", "every"
 * hyet "each", "every"

Ordinal Numbers
Ordinal numbers are regular adjectives.

Coordinating

 * his "for"
 * goy "and"
 * ha "nor"
 * vat "but"
 * ho "or"
 * hyad "yet"
 * evna "so"

Correlative

 * hapu … gi …  "both … and … "
 * ho … ho …  "either … or … "
 * hen … hen …  "neither … nor … "
 * wu … vat …  "not … but … "
 * vu … dapa …  "not only … but also … "

Subordinating

 * tibwa "after"
 * dot "although"
 * vi "if"
 * vad "unless"
 * yuk "so that"
 * bada "therefore"
 * sa "in spite of", "despite"
 * his "because"

Verbs
Verb forms are reforced by the use of auxiliaries vil in the stative conjugation and kel in the active conjugation. Stative conjugation is used with intransitive verbs, having the subject in the absolutive case (that is, no case particle at all). The active conjugation is used with transitive verbs, with subject in the ergative case and direct object in the so called accusative case.

Irregular Verbs

 * gunil "to eat":
 * Act. Perf.: kewa gun-u-wa, kewel gun-u-wel, kewo gun-u-wo; kewuv gun-u-v, keway gun-u-way, kewa gun-u-wa.
 * vepil "to know":
 * Stat. Pres.: va vip-ya, ves vip-yes, va vip-ka; vens vip-i-ns, vets vip-i-ts, va vip-na.
 * Stat. Perf.: viwa vep-wa, vistes vep-stes, viwa vep-ka; viwnes vep-nes, viwts vep-i-ts, viwa vep-na.
 * Act. Pres.: keya vip-ya, keyel vip-yel, keyo vip-yo; keyuv vip-yuv, keyay vip-yay, keya vip-ya
 * Act. Aor.: kesta vi-sta, kestel vi-stel, kesto vi-sto; kestuv vi-stuv, kestay vi-stay, kesta vi-sta
 * pipil "to drink":
 * Act. Pres.: keya pip-ya, keyel pip-yel, keyo pip-yo; keyuv pip-yuv, keyay pip-yay, keya pip-ya
 * Act. Aor.: kesta pu-sta, kestel pu-stel, kesto pu-sto; kestuv pu-stuv, kestay pu-stay, kesta pu-sta
 * atel "to go":
 * Stat. Pres.: va etya, ves et-yes, va e-yka; vens at-e-yns, vets at-e-yts, va et-na
 * Stat. Aor.: vista me-sta, vistes me-stes, vista me-stka, vistnes me-stnes, vistdes me-stdes, vista me-stna
 * Act. Pres.: keya at-a, keyel at-el, keyo at-o; keyuv e-tuv, keyay e-tay, keya eta
 * Act. Perf.: kewa o-wa, kewel o-wel, kewo o-wo; kewuv ato-wuv, keway at-o-way, kewa at-o-wa
 * Act. Aor.: kesta me-sta, kestel me-stel, kesto me-sto; kestuv me-stuv, kestay me-stay, kesta me-sta
 * pimel "to come":
 * Stat. Pres.: va pem-a, ves pem-es, va p-e-yka; vens pim-e-yns, vets pim-e-yts, va pe-yna
 * Act. Pres.: keya pem-a, keyel pem-el, keyo pem-o; keyuv pem-uv, keyay pem-ay, keya pem-a
 * Act. Aor.: kesta pem-sta, kestel pem-stel, kesto pem-sto; kestuv pem-stuv, kestay pem-stay, kesta pem-sta
 * buvil "can", "be able to":
 * Stat. Pres.: va bi-ya, ves bi-yes, va bi-yka; vens bi-yns, vets bi-yts, va bi-yna
 * Stat. Perf.: viwa bu-wa, viwes bu-wes, viwa bu-wka; viwnes bu-wnes, viwts bu-wts, viwa bu-wna
 * Stat. Aor.: vista bu-sta, vistes bu-stes, vista bu-stka; vistnes bu-stnes, vistdes bu-stdes, vista bu-stna
 * Part. Pres.: buvad; Part. Perf.: but; Part. Aor.: bust.
 * Act. Pres.: keya bu-ya, keyel bu-yel, keyo bu-yo; keyuv bu-yuv, keyay bu-yay, keya bu-ya
 * Act. Perf.: kewa bu-wa, kewel bu-wel, kewo bu-wo; kewuv bu-wuv, keway bu-way, kewa bu-wa
 * Act. Aor.: kesta bu-sta, kestel bu-stel, kesto bu-sto; kestuv bu-stuv, kestay bu-stay, kesta bu-sta
 * Part. Perf./Imperf.: bu-tey; Part. Aor.: bu-stey