Xwarṣa

General information
Xwarṣa is an extinct language :(

Consonants
/p b t d ʈ ɖ k g q/ /s z θ ð ʂ ʐ x ħ/ /m n ɳ ŋ/ /v r (l) j w/

     

Additionally, the clusters /θt ðd/ behave as one consonant. The plosive pairs denoted by /pb td/ et cetera do not seem to actually have any contrastive voicing as  is distinct from both  and ; the same applies to all other plosives. The fricative pairs /sz θð/ et cetera, on the other had, do seem to have voicing as  assimilates to  (regressive voicing assimilation is present)

Vowels
/a ɒ e ə i o u/ /ɑ̃ ɛ̃ ɔ̃ ũ/

 <ą ą̂ ę ǫ ǫ̂ ų ų̂>

Circumflexes denote long vowels, ogoneks nasal ones.

Vowel Lengthening
All final vowels lengthen:

Vowel Mergers
In many cases, instead of inserting an epenthetic /d/ or /k/, short vowels may merge into a longer one. Long vowels may either receive a trailing epenthetic consonant when near a short vowel or just absorb it, and two long vowels are always separated by epenthesis. Sometimes, the short vowels merge into an onglide-vowel combination.

Grammar
Xwarṣa is an ergative-absolutive language.

Nouns
Nouns in Xwarṣa inflect for several categories:
 * 1) Number
 * 2) Case
 * 3) Definiteness
 * 4) Noun class
 * 5) Possession

Xwarṣa nouns can be singular, dual and plural. They can be either definite or indefinite. They can either belong to the class of edible objects or inedible objects. They can inflect for one of eight cases:
 * 1) Absolutive
 * 2) Ergative
 * 3) Dative
 * 4) Vocative
 * 5) Instrumental
 * 6) Vialis
 * 7) Malefactive
 * 8) Possessed

Xwarṣa nouns inflect for the person of an object in their possession, which then takes the possessive case. They can inflect for three persons, with additional variations: A Xwarṣa noun looks like this:
 * 1) First person
 * 2) Singular (1)
 * 3) Dual
 * 4) Inclusive (1)
 * 5) Exclusive (1)
 * 6) Plural
 * 7) Inclusive (1)
 * 8) Exclusive (1)
 * 9) Second person
 * 10) Singular (2)
 * 11) Dual (2)
 * 12) Plural (2)
 * 13) Third person
 * 14) Proximate
 * 15) Singular
 * 16) Dual
 * 17) Plural
 * 18) Obviate
 * 19) Singular
 * 20) Dual
 * 21) Plural

The root is the bare morphosemantical unit that makes up the word, stripped of all inflections and derivations. Derivational suffixes are added onto the root to form the basic stem. Adding a possession suffix onto the basic stem makes an extended stem. This extended stem receives inflection and becomes a full noun. Edibility is inherent in the root.

This same pattern is applied for adjectives which behave most like nouns.

Possession (+2)
The second noun inflection slot consists of one suffix that marks for the person of the object in the possession of the marked. There is only one set of suffixes that doesn't show edibility:

Inflection (+3)
The third noun inflection slot consists of only one suffix which conflates the categories of case, number and definiteness. There are two different sets of suffixes depending on whether the noun to be inflected is edible or not. These two sets have some moderate differences:

If the extended stem ends and the suffix begins with a vowel, a stem extension consonant is inserted, usually either /k/ or /d/. If the extended stem ends and the suffix begins with a consonant, an echo vowel is inserted whose quality is the same as the last vowel's, but lacking length and nasalisation.

The possessive case ending is often added if only the marked serves as either a predicative or is in the absolutive case otherwise. It can be used practically everywhere a possessed noun occurs, but this kind of marking isn't universal. If the possessed is marked with the case marker, the possessor becomes marked for the case the possessed would otherwise have had.

Adjectives
Adjectives in Xwarṣa behave like nouns except that they have an additional edibility slot and a comparison clitic:

Edibility (+E)
The edibility slot has one suffix which shows the edibility of the noun with which it agrees.

Comparison (=4)
The comparison slot has one clitic which most often attaches to the adjective:

Numbers
Xwarṣa has a composite vigesimal-decimal system: it has simple numerals for numbers from zero to ten and twenty, and composite for eleven to nineteen but numbers greater than twenty are formed vigesimally - as a sum of multiples of twenty and numbers from zero to nineteen. The next unique number is two hundred, then after that two thousand. Numbers greater than two thousand are formed using various strategies and multiple forms exist for many numbers. Ordinal numbers behave and inflect as regular adjectives. The table below shows both cardinal and ordinal numbers:

In general, simple cardinals are bare and simple ordinals take a suffix <-əx>. Some ordinals have the suffix merged into their shape and some have irregular or suppletive cardinal and ordinal stems. Numerals from eleven to nineteen are formed irregularly.

Complex cardinals like "21" are formed as "20-and-1", in the pattern of: bigger number's ordinal stem + <-j-> + smaller number's ordinal stem. Complex ordinals of such numbers are formed as "20.-1.", in the pattern of: bigger number's cardinal stem + smaller number's cardinal stem.

Complex cardinals like "40" are formed multiplicatively: forty is formed as "two-times twenty", in the pattern of: bigger number's cardinal stem + <-ṣ>, then a word boundary, followed by the smaller number's cardinal stem.

Complex ordinal numbers numbers like "40." are formed like "2.-times 20.", in the pattern of: bigger number's ordinal form, with <-x> replaced by <-ṣ>, then a word boundary, followed by the smaller number's ordinal stem.

Verbs
Verbs in Xwarṣa inflect for several categories:
 * 1) Person
 * 2) Number
 * 3) Tense
 * 4) Polarity
 * 5) Aspect
 * 6) Mood
 * 7) Voice

Xwarṣa verbs inflect for the person and number of its absolutive argument, which are conflated as such:
 * 1) First person
 * 2) Singular (1)
 * 3) Dual
 * 4) Inclusive (1)
 * 5) Exclusive (1)
 * 6) Plural
 * 7) Inclusive (1)
 * 8) Exclusive (1)
 * 9) Second person
 * 10) Singular (2)
 * 11) Dual (2)
 * 12) Plural (2)
 * 13) Third person
 * 14) Proximate
 * 15) Singular
 * 16) Dual
 * 17) Plural
 * 18) Obviate
 * 19) Singular
 * 20) Dual
 * 21) Plural

They can be in any of the nine tenses:
 * 1) Present
 * 2) Past
 * 3) Relative past
 * 4) Absolute past
 * 5) Immediate past (/)
 * 6) Future
 * 7) Relative future
 * 8) Absolute future
 * 9) Vespertine future (/)
 * 10) Proximate future
 * 11) Distant future

They can encode for one of four aspects:
 * 1) Imperfective
 * 2) Perfective
 * 3) Inchoative
 * 4) Cessative
 * 5) Defective

They can be inflected for one of three moods:
 * 1) Indicative
 * 2) Hypothetical
 * 3) Imperative

They can be in one of three voices:
 * 1) Medioactive
 * 2) Antipassive
 * 3) Reciprocal

They can be either positive (unglossed) or negative.

A Xwarṣa verb looks like this:

The root is the bare morphosemantical unit that makes up the word, stripped of all inflections and derivations. Derivational suffixes are added onto the root to form the basic stem. Adding the aspect and mood inflections makes an extended stem. This extended stem receives a conflated suffix onto which voice is attached, forming a full verb.

Aspect (+2)
The second verb slot fits the aspect suffix which also encodes transitivity:

Aspect can be ommited, implied or circumstantially marked; the second slot is not obligatory. Usually verbs have an inherited aspect; in that case, no marking is needed

Mood (+3)
The third verb slot has the mood suffix. It encodes only the grammatical mood of the verb:

Voice (+5)
The fifth verb slot has the voice suffix:

Pronouns and Correlatives
Pronouns in Xwarṣa inflect otherwise exactly as nouns. Quantifiers semantically fit together with pronouns although they inflect like adjectives. Pro-adverbs behave like adverbs.


 * *anyone, someone, everyone, no one, another one, the same one

Syntax
Xwarṣa is a head-initial, VEA (verb-ergative-absolutive) language. As it is a highly inflected language, it essentially has free word order. It fronts parts of speech to provide emphasis.

Adjectives in it come after nouns and adverbs after verbs.

Equality and Difference
Adjectives of equality, likeness and difference go either with a copula and the preposition "pąn" which takes the dative followed by a noun phrase, or with a subordinator, copula, "pąn" and a dative complement.

Relative Clauses
Relative clauses function like either adverbs or adjectives on the surface, modifying noun phrases. They are formed using the relative correlatives whose referent is the modified segment in the main clause in which they are embedded. Word order in relative clauses always follows the pattern of "CORRELATIVE-VERB", followed by the other constituents that aren't locked in place.

Creatives and Adjectives
Verbs of creation (or creatives) such as "to be born", "to be made", "to be written" et cetera can take adjectives in the instrumental as complement (ex. to be born free) to specify the manner or properties intended or realised of the object of creation.

Titles
Titles function almost like adjectives: they agree with the noun they modify in case, possession and number (not edibility) and come after it (John king; Ahuramazdâ Θôθągaḍǫ̂)

Possessives
In a possessor-possessed combination, the possessed often takes the possessed case and the possessor takes the case role of the possessed in addition to the possession inflection.

Conditionals
Conditionals are introduced several conditional particles, such as "ǫkê" (for specifying direct causation). A conditional clause begins with the particle, followed by the verb in the hypothetical, then comes normal word order. Fronting for emphasis cannot move any element to be between the particle and the verb nor can it move any element so that it stands before the particle.

Antipassives
Antipassives are marked by a specific verb conjugation. The original absolutive argument of the active is deleted and the old ergative argument becomes the absolutive argument. The original absolutive may be still present but marked with the dative or vialis cases.

Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are introduced with the particle "dâ" and treated as regular sentences, with missing arguments implied and present arguments overwriting assumed ones. Subordinate clauses are unmarked for case but can take on postpositions (that then come after the particle) and still function as arguments.

Vocabulary
Xwarsa/Lexicon

Example text

 * All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.


 * Hąbą̂θṣą̂ ikk nąjadą̂ vûxvåŋ pąn jîṭṭiluksǫ̂s jęqǫsǫ̂s. Ḍîką̂ðąndų̂ qęrakôxâ jęxwaṭ jaṣ xwetąkîsûsk ẓająkąr ǫðąkîsûsk ebasâs.


 * Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.


 * Veṣąkąndų̂ ðoḍis naṭîrkiwaθak xâ ŋûhâxm terją̂xm jaṣ uṣakęk kątir veṣṣâsaknax.

The Avesta
The First Yasna I announce and carry out this Yasna for the creator Ahura Mazda, the radiant and glorious, the greatest and the best, the most beautiful, the most firm, the wisest, and the one of all whose body is the most perfect, who attains His ends the most infallibly because his Asha permits so, to him who disposes our minds aright, who sends His joy-creating grace afar; who made us, and has fashioned us, and who has nourished and protected us, who is the most bounteous Spirit!

Vîṭṭəxînak Jasnâjẓanak  Paṣṣǫkęstą̂ jaṣ gųmakęstą̂ ṣętår Jasnâjẓâ ðoją̂ ęn Ahurəmazdǫ̂s-Θôθągaḍǫ̂s, gəhâledǫ̂s, neṣjemǫ̂s, ivvâdǫ̂ssęr, ṇâradǫ̂ssęr, jijekǫ̂ssęr, uxjemǫ̂ssęr, gijâkǫ̂ssęr, kątǫ̂s ẓaṭîrsųt ǫðąkθą iman ûhaxjemsęr, ẓaṭîrsåθ gųmadękθą kątår ðetak ûhaxjemąrsęr zapî sadatą̂ Aṣâxm, ẓaṭîrs gêxją̂kθąk ôxaṣk ikkåθak ðwaṭǫ̂s ṇârakǫ̂s, ẓaṭîrs eppą̂kθą̂ səxptôxm ẓaṭîrs θôθą̂kθą̂ qiqâ kątwaθ ęrit, ẓaṭîrs θôθą̂ðąr jaṣ bûθą̂ðąr, ẓaṭîrs bikjǫdękąr jaṣ hə̂hrîdękąr, ẓaṭîrs ẓeprâdękṣęk ðetvęm!