Denari

The Denari language (Ferse-va Denari / فهرسه'ڤا دهناری) is a language of the hormagi-legana family, spoken by denari, an alien people of the planet Ēvèsh (world, in Denari). It is a nominative-accusative language, of SVO structure, but with some freedoms for SOV sentences. with highly declined nouns (it has eight grammatical cases), and highly conjugated verbs.

Its main speakers are the Denari, it is spoken mainly in Denar, officially Denari Republic (Kermèshvâna-va Denari / کهرمهٔشڤآنا'ڤا دهناری). The denari are monotheists, their religion is nishraism, and they accredit in a single goddess called Nishra (literally god in denari). Their religion encourages capitalism and the pursuit of profit, whose purpose is in the commerce practiced by the Denaris.

Denari is used as lingua franca in much of the planet Ēvèsh, having influenced many languages.

Consonants
Standard Denari has 28 consonants, being largely uncomplexed compared to other languages, and the most complex parts of the consonant inventory are the presence of an emphatic voiceless alveolar sibilant [sˤ], or emphatic S, and the presence of uvular and glotal plosives, [q] and [ʔ] respectively.

Each consonant has its own individual letter, except for the consonants [r] and [ɾ], which are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic), and the phonemes [l] and [ɫ], which are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic).
 * The Denari only has a emphatic consonant, the [sˤ], which is only used between two vowels, and is represented in the Perso-Arabic alphabet by the letter ص, a phoneme spelled as a [s], but with a sound near [z]. A similar phenomenon occurs in the Portuguese language, in which the letter S acquires the sound of [z] between vowels.
 * The phonemes [r] and [ɾ] are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic). Their uses vary from word to word, syllable to syllable and dialect to dialect, but usually the phoneme [ɾ] is often used more.
 * The phonemes [l] and [ɫ] are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic). The letter L represents the phoneme [l] when it precedes a vowel on the same syllable, and represents the phoneme [ɫ] when occur after a vowel on the same syllable. But in some dialects the L acquires the sound of [l] same at the end of the syllable after and vowel.
 * In denari, nasal sounds ([n] and [m]) are only preceded, on the same syllable, by closed vowels ([i] and [u]), by close mid vowels ([e] and [o]), or by the open-mid centra vowel ([ɐ]).

Vowels
The Standard Denari has eight vowels, being two closed vowels ([i] and [u]), and six open vowels, divided in three acute vowels ([a], [ɛ] and [ɔ]) and three grave vowels ([ɐ], [e], [o]). Each vowel has its own letter, differentiating the open front vowels from the open back vowels. This prevents words, which would be orthographically the same (varying only in the opening of the vowel), to be confused in the pronunciation. Example: In Denari, the closed vowels [i] and [u] and the semi-vowels [j] and [w] are respectively represented by the same letters, I / ی in the case of the phonemes [i] and [j], and U / ؤ  in the case of the phonemes [u] and [w]. This is because in Denari, sounds [j] and [w] are little used, used only in diphthongs, and, under certain circumstances, optional. The use of the sounds [j] and [w] in diphthongs is only compulsory when it is a rising diphthong (semi-vowel + vowel) antecedent of vowel or when the decreasing diphthong (vowel + semi-vowel). Examples:
 * Vos / ڤوس - /vos/ - Number two in English.
 * Vòs / ڤۏس - /vɔs/ - Uncle in English.
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.
 * The word naia / نایا, woman in denari, is pronounced [ˈna.ja]. In this case, the [i] would only be pronounced in the place of [j] if there was a tonic accent on the I, as occurs in the word aíad / ایَاد, stone in denari.
 * The word drai / درای, meaning death, is pronounced [dɾaj], that is because there is a decreasing diphthong. The [i] would be pronounced in place of [j] if there was a tonic accent, which would indicate that there is no diphthong.

Long Vowels
All denari vowels have their long versions, which are represented by the following forms: When the vowel is long, and precedes another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong will not be form, and it will be a hiatus. When the vowel is long but succeed another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong may form depending on the accent and diphthong formation rules.
 * In the Latin alphabet, by the addition of a macrón (ˉ) above the letter.
 * In the Arabic alphabet, by the addition of a diacritic (ـِ) below the letter.

Diphthongs
In denari, there are two categories of diphthongs: rising (semi-vowel + vowel) and falling diphthongs (vowel + semi-vowel or vowel + vowel).

Rising Diphthongs:
There are no rising diphthongs beginning in semi-vowel and ending in closed vowel (/ji/, /ju/, /wu/, /wi/) in Denari.

Falling Diphthongs:
Denari doesn't have falling diphthongs terminated in A, Â, È and Ò.

Hiatus
A hiatus occurs when two adjacent vowels are in different syllables, having non-continuous sound. A hiatus can be formed with all vowels, and will be orthographically identified by various rules of acentuantion and location of the vowel.
 * When the vowel is a long vowel, it will always form a hiatus with the next vowel. Example: Ahrāe / احراِه - [ahˈraːe].
 * When the two consecutive vowels (except when the second vowel is [i] or [u], because they have its own rules) are succeded by the stresseded syllable of the word, they will always form a hiatus, so there will be no graphical accentuation. Example: In the word Aoní / اونیَ - [a.oˈni], the letter O isn't accentuated, because a gap will always form when two vowels are succeeded by the stressed syllable [ˈni].
 * When the second vowel of two consecutive vowels is [i] or [u], the letters I and U will always be accentuated to identify the sounds of [i] and [u], not the sounds of [j] and [w] in their respective letters, and to indicate that the syllable in which these vowels are always the stressed syllable of the word. Exemple: In the words Zhaís (ژایَس) / Zhaír (ژایَر) - [ʒaˈis] / [ʒaˈiɾ], meaning the adjective bad, in the masculine and feminine forms, the letter I is accentuated, to indicate the hiatus, the sound of [i] and not [j], and the stresseds sylables of the words [ˈis] and [ˈiɾ], because when there is a hiatus and the second vowel is [i] or [u], they will always be in the stressed syllable.
 * There will always be hiatus when there is vowel succeded by A, Â, È and O, and not accentuated, except when one of the vowels is stressed and is accentuated according to the accentuation rules. Ex: Maèk / ماهٔک - [maˈɛk], meaning drink.
 * When there are three consecutive vowels letters in a word, there may be two situations: In the first situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel ([j] and [w]) and the third is another vowel. In this case, the first and second letters form a hiatus, and the second and third letters form a growing diphthong. Ex: Naia / نایا - [ˈna.ja], meaning woman. In the second situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel and the third is a vowel, and the first two letters form a diphthong, with the last two forming a hiatus. In this case, the last vowel will always be accentuated to indicate the hiatus and the fact that it will also be in the stressed syllable of the word. Ex: Paiór / پایۏَر - [pajˈɔɾ], meaning plant.

Optional Hiatus
Words that begin or with two consecutive vowels lerters may have optional gaps, in which, if there is no accent that indicates the tone, and hence the occurrence of the hiatus, the two letters can be pronounced both as hiatus and diphthong.

Exemples:
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.

Alphabet
Denari has its own alphabet, but in this text the words will be written in the Latin alphabet and in a modified Perso-Arabic alphabet (because they are the ones that best represent the Denari phonemes).
 * The "Ss", (س in Perso-Arabic alphabet), is used between two vowels, to represent the phoneme [s].
 * The ص is written as S in the Latin alphabet, but has a sound of [sˤ]. It is not used elsewhere, only between two vowels..

Pronouns
Pronouns in the Denari language are simple when compared to other languages. The denari has one pronoun for each person of the discourse, in the singular and in the plural.

In the first person, we have, in the nominative case, from which the pronouns in the other cases are derived, the pronouns ast / است (first person singular) and ahrā / احراِ (first person plural).

In the second person, we have, in the nominative case, the pronouns nor / نور (second person singular) and avut / اڤؤت (second person plural). Denari does not have the T - V distinction, and the use of pronouns does not depend on the relationship between the speakers or speech formality, but rather whether the speaker is speaking with one or more interlocutors. Both are used in both formal and informal speech, and اڤؤت / avut is as used as نور / nor, depending on the number of the interlocutor.

In the third person, pronouns differ in numbers as well as in gender. The denari has, in the third person singular the pronouns sas / ساس (he) and sar / سار (she) in the nominative case. The denari has no neutral gender, so there is no neutral pronoun. It also has no third-person pronoun for inanimate or non-human objects. As in the Romance languages, the masculine and feminine pronouns of the third person plural are the plural of the third-person pronouns of the singular, in the case sasân / ساصآن (they masculine) and sarân / سارآن (they feminine) in the nominative case.

Denari, except in the nominative case, has a reflexive pronoun for the third person, being vet / ڤهت in the accusative case.

The Denari has nominative pronouns (indicating subject), accusative (indicating object), dative (indicating the sufferer of an action), instrumental (indicating company, instrument and agent of an action in the passive voice), ablative (indicating from the pronoun), possessive (indicating possessiveness), locative pronoun (indicating that the pronoun is the location of something), demonstrative, indefinite, relative and interrogative pronouns.

Nominative Pronouns
Nominative pronouns indicate the pronoun as subject of the sentence. Denari is a pronoun-droping language, that is, the nominative pronoun can be concealed because the verb conjugates according to the subject and indicate the subject. Since the Denari is an SVO language, the nominative pronoun always appears in front of the verb at the beginning of the sentence.

Exemples:

 * Ast vâ as kōbèki-va māsas / است ڤآ اس کوِبهٔکی'ڤا ماِصاس (I have a great house)
 * Ahrā lân lândīsân / احراِ لآن لآندیِصآن (We are brothers)
 * Nor alanat alèli / نور الانات الهٔلی (You read the book)
 * Avut maèdânt iadi / اڤؤت ماهٔدآنت یادی (You drank all)
 * Sas i ânsa cepīs / ساس ی آنسا ثهپیِس (He is my husband)
 * Sar i ar naiaī-va shīr / سار ی ار نایایِ'ڤا شیِر (She is a tall woman)
 * Sasân in vòviasân / ساصآن ین ڤۏڤیاصآن (They are cousins)
 * Sarân serin kōbèkda sarnos / سارآن سهرین کوِبهٔکدا سارنوس (They will go to father's house)

Acusative Pronouns
The accusative pronouns indicate the pronoun as direct object. Despite the fact that Denari is normally an SVO language, in the case of the accusative pronouns, they may precede the verb, after the subject, forming an SOV sentence.

The denari has the reflexive accusative pronoun of third person vet / ڤهت, which indicates that the subject also suffers the action. It is used to refer both to the third person masculine and feminine subject in the singular as in the plural.

The accusative pronouns are similar to the nominative pronouns, and the only difference is the substitution of the last vowel of the nominative pronouns by the letter E / ه. The only accusative pronouns that differ most from the nominative pronouns are esm / هسم and ne / نه, but which maintain similarities with ast / است and nor / نور. Even so, in these two pronouns, in parallel with their nominative correspondents, there was the replacement of their vowels by E / ه.

Exemples ( underlined null subject in English ):

 * Sar esm mararí / سار هسم ماراریَ (She will love me)
 * Sar maraní ahrē / سار مارانیَ احرهِ (She loves us)
 * Ne ceradí  / نه ثهرادیَ  ( He stole you)
 * Lávân laedí avet / لاَڤآن لاهدیَ اڤهت (The money conquered you)
 * Vavt zamaní vet l'tânav / ڤاڤت زامانیَ ڤهت لعتآناڤ (The fire feeds himself from air)
 * Nas nervas lèrí ses / ناس نهرڤاس لهٔریَ سهس (Your son will see him)
 * Ser vergad / سهر ڤهرگاد  ( I listened her)
 * Nânvar sesân līvarí / نآنڤار سهصآن لیِڤاریَ  (The sister will help them)
 * Ânra peshvarân lèrin serân / آنرا پهشڤارآن لهٔرین سهرآن (My daughters will see them)

Dative Pronouns
The dative pronouns indicate the pronoun as indirect object, that is, the one who is the recipient of the action.

As with accusative pronouns, a sentence with a dative pronoun can be SOV. There are also two ways to have a SVO phrase with a dative pronoun. In the first, the dative pronoun comes after the direct object of the sentence. In the second form, the dative pronoun precedes the direct object.

Dative pronouns are similar to nominative pronouns. Most of the time, the last consonant of the nominative pronouns is subsituted by the letter D / د, and in others the letter D / د is added after the last letter. Also, when combined with some nominative pronouns, the last vowel in some dative pronouns is replaced by A / ا.

Exemples:

 * Sas asd visadar alèli  / ساس اسد ڤیصادار الهٔلی (He give the book to me / He give me the book)
 * Ahnār nânvar acirat ahrād koti / احناِر نآنڤار اثیرات احراِد کوتی (Our sister will tell something to us)
 * Mēso vei làndas kadin kōbèki nad / مهِصو ڤهی لآَنداس کالآنا کوِبهٔکی ناد (The man and the brother made the house to you)
 * Pradadí alaio avād / پرادادیَ الایو اڤاِد ( He kept reading to you)
 * Sar pradadí alaio vēd / سار پرادادیَ الایو ڤهِد (She kept reading to herself)
 * Visar sasd ar ehrâni  / ڤیصار ساسد ار هحرآنی ( I will give him a present)
 * Dânvarân sedin sard / دآنڤارآن سهدین سارد (The friends went to her)
 * Sarân visanin mardi sasând / سارآن ڤیصانین ماردی ساصآند (They give love to them)
 * Sasân visanin sarând mardi  / ساصآن ڤیصانین سارآند ماردی (They give love to them)

Instrumental Pronouns
Instrumentive pronouns indicate the pronoun as company or instrument of the subject, and is the agent of the sentence in passive voice.

The instrumental pronoun, unlike the accusative and dative pronouns, will always come after the verb, forming an SVO order, even though there is an accusative or dative pronoun assuming a SOV order in the same sentence. It will always come after the object of the sentence, often times being a word in the locative case. In denari there isn't order with someone in one place, but the order in a place with someone. Even if the object, when it is a dative or accusative pronoun, is before the verb, the comitative pronoun continues after the verb. Usually an instrumental pronoun means with someone/instrument, indicating both company and the use of an instrument. But when used in a passive sentence, it indicates the agent of the action, and can singify either with the instrument / company or by / because the instrument / company. Some postpositions are used to indicate a different meaning from the with the instrument / company: In relation to nominative pronouns, they are very similar, with small changes in the interior and the addition of the T / ت at the beginning of the pronoun.
 * Mòrd (مۏرد) - By
 * Mòrzârd (مۏرزآرد) - Because of
 * Mòrtāz (مۏرتاِز) - Via / By way of
 * Mòrdegaf (مۏردهگاف) - Through
 * Xâste (خآسته) - Without
 * Shaz (شاز) - With (little used)

Ablative Pronoun
The ablative pronouns indicate the pronoun as the origin of the movement away from something in relation to the subject. Like the comitative pronoun, the ablative pronoun will always remain after the verb, forcing an SVO order, even if it is related to an accusative or dative pronoun that precedes the verb in a SOV order.

The ablative pronouns, in relation to the nominative pronouns, differ by adding the letter V / ڤ at the end of the word, and some vowel changes in the pronouns.

Exemples:

 * Mēso ventedí ar ehrâni asv / مهِصو ڤهنتهدیَ ار هحرآنی اسڤ (The man won a gift from me)
 * Xorarí draī dasarna ahrāv / خوراریَ درایِ داصارنا احراِڤ ( He knew the gril's death from us)
 * Xashin mardi nav / خاشین ماردی ناڤ ( I feel the love from you)
 * Xed avāv / خهد اڤاِڤ ( He came from you)
 * Tarser xedí vāv / تارسهر خهدیَ ڤاِڤ (The hope came from himself)
 * Nerat bārz sasv / نهرات باِرز ساسڤ ( You will live far from he)
 * Dadân kōbèkve, pach haft zèvid sarv / دادآن کوِبهٔکڤه، پاچ حافت زهٔڤید سارڤ ( We were in the house, but soon I left from she/it)
 * Fâq i ar ehrani sasvân / فآق ی ار هحرآنی ساسڤآن (The table is a gift from they)
 * Ēshaq xení sarvân / هِشاق خهنیَ سارڤآن (The perfume come from they)

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate a relation of possession of an object to the pronoun.

Possessive pronouns mostly precede the object they possess, and agree on gender and number with the object, acting as a possessive determinant. When accompanied by the object, the possessive pronoun never declines in grammatical case, because it is the object that delineates.

But when in the same sentence a possessive pronoun is used as the determinant of an object, another possessive pronoun can be used without an object, since it is understood that it has the same object or another object that has the same denomination and is related to subject matter. In this case, when the possessive pronoun comes with no object that it has, it may decline according to the grammatical case it is in.

Exemple:
In the first and second person (both singular and plural), the posessive pronoun agrees on gender and number with the object, there being two posessive pronouns (one masculine and one feminine) for each person and number, with each posessive pronoun (masculine or feminine) presenting singular and plural form.
 * Ânra aiar / آنرا ایار (My mother) - In this case, the possessive pronoun ânra / آنرا is used as a determinant, and indicates the possession of the object aiar / ایار (mother).
 * Ânra aiar lèdí árnar aiaīr / آنرا ایار لهٔدیَ اَرنار ایایِر (My mother saw her mother) - In this case, both are used as determinants, but, the subject of the sentence - ânra aiar -, or the object - árnar aiaīr, can be repleced by a single possessive pronoun, like in the next sentence.
 * Ânra aiar lèdí árnīr / آنرا ایار لهٔدیَ اَرنیِر (My mother saw hers) - In this case, the possessive pronoun árnar / اَرنیِر is used without a possessed object, becouse it can be understood that it refers to a mother, not the mother that is the subject, and is possessed by the speaker, but a another mother, maybe the same mother (it depends on the context, but assuming it is another mother), that is possessed by a woman unreported in this sentence. Also, in this sentence, the possessive pronoun decline in the accusative case.

As in the nominative case, third-person pronouns have masculine and feminine forms, and third-person plural pronouns are the plural of third-person singular, third-person possessive pronouns, singular and plural, present four forms in singular, two masculine and two feminine, each of two forms agreeing with the two denari genders of the object. Pronouns also have plural forms. Then, in addition to agreeing on the gender and the number of the object, the third-person pronouns indicate the gender and the number of the possessor. Then, in the singular, there are four possessive pronouns in the third person singular and four in the third person plural.

Reflexive possessive pronouns are only used when the possessor of the object has already been referred in the text, and can be either subject or direct / indirect object in the third person. In relation to nominative pronouns, possessive pronouns are more different in form than other pronouns that remain similar to nominative pronouns. But possessive pronouns retain some of the vowels and consonants of the nominative pronoun, with addition of vowels, substitution of consonants, use of S / س and R / ر to indicate the gender of the possessed object, and an N / ن inserted at the beginning or middle of the pronoun. The N / ن related to the -na / نا- declination of the genitive case.

Exemples:

 * Ânra alèl dav defede / آنرا الهٔل داڤ دهفهده (My book was burned)
 * Ahnā́sân kōbèkân xâs den modave / احناَِصآن کوِبهٔکآن خآس ین موداڤه (Our houses aren't in the city)
 * Nas pish xâs xosarí ânra peshvīr / ناس پیش خآس خوصاریَ آنرا پهشڤیِر (Your child will not see my daughter)
 * Ànvas fâq dē pássīs shevisâna / آَنڤاس فآق دهِ پاَسیِس شهڤیصآنا (Your table is full of food)
 * Psândadí návar kōbèki / پسآندادیَ ناَڤار کوِبهٔکی ( He build his own house)
 * Visas i ásnas nervīs / ڤیصاس ی اَسناس نهرڤیِس (The child is his son)
 * Ânra aiar i drade, árnīr xâs i / آنرا ایار ی دراده، اَرنیِر خآس ی (My mother is dead, hers isn't)
 * Asànasân emādân in alīas / اسآَناصآن هماَدآن ین الیِاس (Their flowers are beautiful)
 * Qā̀tin arànas ēshaqi / قآَِتین ارآَناس هِشاقی ( I like their perfume)