Denari

The Denari language (Ferse Denari / فهرسه دهناری) is a language of the hormagi-legana family, spoken by Denari people. It is a nominative-accusative language, of SVO structure, but with some SOV sentences. with highly declined nouns (it has eight grammatical cases), and highly conjugated verbs.

Denari is an important commercial, scientific language with a rich and very important literary and poetic tradition.

Consonants
Standard Denari has 29 consonants, 26 phonemes and 3 allophones, being largely uncomplexed compared to other languages. The most complex parts of the consonant inventory is the presence of uvular and glotal plosives, [q] and [ʔ] respectively.

Each consonant has its own individual letter, except for the consonants [r] and [ɾ], which are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic), the phoneme [l] and his allophone (ɫ), which are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic), and the phoneme [n] and his allophones (ŋ) and (ɴ), which are represented by the same letter N (ن in Perso-Arabic).
 * The phonemes [r] and [ɾ] are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic). Their uses vary from word to word, syllable to syllable and dialect to dialect, but usually the phoneme [ɾ] is often used more.
 * The phonemes [l] and the allophone (ɫ) are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic). The letter L represents the phoneme [l] when it precedes a vowel on the same syllable, and represents the allophone (ɫ) when occur after a vowel on the same syllable. But in some dialects the L acquires the sound of [l] same at the end of the syllable after and vowel.
 * In Denari, nasal sounds ([m], [n] and his allophones (ŋ) and (ɴ) are only preceded, on the same syllable, by closed vowels ([i] and [u]), close mid vowels ([e] and [o]), or by the open-mid central vowel ([ɐ]). The allophones (ŋ) and (ɴ) of the phoneme [n] only occur, respectively, after [k] or [g] and [q].

Vowels
The Standard Denari has eight vowels, being two closed vowels ([i] and [u]), and six open vowels, divided in three acute vowels ([a], [ɛ] and [ɔ]) and three grave vowels ([ɐ], [e], [o]). Each vowel has its own letter, differentiating the open front vowels from the open back vowels. This prevents words, which would be orthographically the same (varying only in the opening of the vowel), to be confused in the pronunciation. Example: In Denari, the closed vowels [i] and [u] and the semi-vowels [j] and [w] are respectively represented by the same letters, I / ی in the case of the phonemes [i] and [j], and U / و in the case of the phonemes [u] and [w]. This is because in Denari the letters I / ی and U / و are spoken as [i] and [u] when the vowel is alone or forms a hiatus with another vowel, and are spoken as [j] and [w] when forms a diphthong with another vowel.
 * Vos / ڤۏس - /vos/ - Number two in English.
 * Vòs / ڤۊس - /vɔs/ - Uncle in English.

Long Vowels
All denari vowels have their long versions, which are represented by the following forms: When the vowel is long, and precedes another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong will not be form, and it will be a hiatus. When the vowel is long but succeed another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong may form depending on the accent and diphthong formation rules.
 * In the Latin alphabet, by the addition of a macrón (ˉ) above the letter.
 * In the Arabic alphabet, by the addition of a diacritic (ـِ) below the letter.

Diphthongs
In denari, there are two categories of diphthongs: rising (semi-vowel + vowel) and falling diphthongs (vowel + semi-vowel or vowel + vowel).

Rising Diphthongs:
There are no rising diphthongs beginning in semi-vowel and ending in closed vowel (/ji/, /ju/, /wu/, /wi/) in Denari.

Falling Diphthongs:
Denari doesn't have falling diphthongs terminated in A, Â, È and Ò.

Hiatus
A hiatus occurs when two adjacent vowels are in different syllables, having non-continuous sound. A hiatus can be formed with all vowels, and will be orthographically identified by various rules of acentuantion and location of the vowel.
 * When the vowel is a long vowel, it will always form a hiatus with the previous vowel but not with the next vowel or semi-vowel. Example: Lāsāi / لاِساِی - [laːˈsaːj], meaning the declension of the word lāsa in the genitive case, don't have a hiatus, but the word tuērí / توهریَ - [tu.eːˈɾi] meaning portal, door, gateway, have the hiatus between a short vowel ([u]) and a long vowel ([eː]). Because of this, tuēri is not pronounced [tweːˈɾi] but [tu.eːˈɾi].
 * When the second vowel of two consecutive vowels is [i] or [u], the letters I and U will always be accentuated to identify the sounds of [i] and [u], not the sounds of [j] and [w] in their respective letters, and to indicate that the syllable in which these vowels are always the stressed syllable of the word. Exemple: In the words zhaís (ژایَس) / zhaír (ژایَر) - [ʒaˈis] / [ʒaˈiɾ], meaning the adjective bad, in the masculine and feminine forms, the letter I is accentuated, to indicate the hiatus, the sound of [i] and not [j], and the stresseds sylables of the words [ˈis] and [ˈiɾ], because when there is a hiatus and the second vowel is [i] or [u], they will always be in the stressed syllable if they are one of the last three syllables of the world.
 * There will always be hiatus when there is vowel succeded by A, Â, È and O, and not accentuated, except when one of the vowels is stressed and is accentuated according to the accentuation rules. Ex: maèk / ماهٔک - [maˈɛk], meaning drink.
 * When there are three consecutive vowels letters in a word, there may be two situations: In the first situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel ([j] and [w]) and the third is another vowel. In this case, the first and second letters form a hiatus, and the second and third letters form a growing diphthong. Ex: naia / نایا - [ˈna.ja], meaning woman. In the second situation, all letters are vowels, or the last letter is a semi-vowel, and a falling diphthong is maked by the last two vowel letters.

Alphabet
Denari has its own alphabet, but in this text the words will be written in the Latin alphabet and in a modified Perso-Arabic alphabet (because they are the ones that best represent the Denari phonemes).

Accentuation Rule
Denari employs graphic accentuation in the vast majority of words. Even if a word in the nominative case is not accented, it is likely to be accentuated in some of its declension.

The rules of accentuation of the Denari language are extremely easy, and there are only tree: These two rules exist because it is more common for a word ending in a vowel to be paroxyton than oxytone, while it is more common for a word ending in a consonant to be oxytone. The graphic accent always falls on the vowel of the stressed syllable.
 * When a word ends in a vowel, the stressed syllable will be accentuated when the word is oxytone or proparoxytone.
 * When a word ends in a consonant, the stressed syllable will be accentuated when the word is proparoxyton or paroxyton.
 * When the stressed syllable of a word, regardless of its location, is formed by the vowels I and U, when short vowels, forming hiatus with another vowel, the vowel will be accentuated.

While in the Arabic alphabet the graphic accent is represented by a diacritic (ـَ) above the letter, in the Latin alphabet is more complex to represent the grapich accent, because the letters Â, Ò and È use accents to distinguish their sounds from the sounds of the letters A, O and E. So, in the Latin alphabet, the graphical accents are:
 * Use of (^) above E and O to indicate, respectively, the sounds [ˈe] and [ˈo]
 * Use of (`) above Â, to indicate the sound [ˈɐ].
 * Use of (´) above A, Ò, È, I and U, to indicate the sounds ['a], ['ɛ], ['ɔ], ['i] and ['u].

Word Order
Denari has a predominantly subject-verb-object (SVO) word order, while SOV order is less used, more used in literature and poetry and in a null-subject sentence. All other orders are possible because of the language's gramatical cases, restricted, however, to poetry and literature.

Nouns
Denari nouns are inflected by number (plural and singular), grammatical case and gender (masculine and feminine). Articles and adjectives must all agree on the number, gender and case to the noun. As Denari is a fusional language, all suffixes that differentiate between gender and number are on the declension of nouns in their respective grammatical cases. Denari has 8 grammatical cases, which are:


 * Nominative: Indicates the subject of an action or the subject and predicate of a copular sentence.
 * Accusative: Indicates the direct object of a transitive verb.
 * Dative: Indicates the indirect object of a verb.
 * Genitive: Indicates the possessor of a noun.
 * Ablative: Indicates the movement away from of the noun.
 * Instrumental: Indicates that the noun is the means by or the companion with a noun is or do something.
 * Locative: Indicates that the noun is the location of something.
 * Vocative: Indicates that the noun is adressed or called by someone.

All of these 8 grammatical cases are arranged among the 7 declension paradigms. Below there are each declension paradigm:

1st Declension (a stem)
The 1st declension is the delcension of the -a stem, because A is the thematic vowel, since most suffixes will have the letter A, except in the nominative. Most, though not all, of the words are feminine, because A, Â, E and È are feminine vowels.