Miwonša

Miwonša is an a priori conlang created in 2011 by Plusquamperfekt (member of http://www.unilang.org and http://zbb.spinnwebe.com). The grammar is essentially based on earlier conlang projects (for example Kĵatonša) that have not been finished until now. One unique feature of Miwonša is that it can be also written with Tarul, a conscript created in 2011.

Phoneme inventory:
Miwonša has 18 vowel phonemes (5 oral, 5 nasal, 8 diphthongs) and 27 consonant phonemes:

In loanwoards, the phonemes /b, d, g, v/ may also occur, but it is also possible to simply devoice them. Allophony: Before /i, ĩ/, /t/ and /c/ become [tɕ], /h/ becomes [ɕ], /n/ becomes [ɲ] and /l/ becomes /ʎ/.

Vowels: /a, ã, ɛ, ɛ̃, i, ĩ, ɔ, ɔ̃, u, ũ/; Diphthongs: [aɪ, aʊ, ɛɪ, ɛʊ, ɪʊ, ɔɪ, ɔʊ, ʊɪ]

Phonotactics:
Possible onsets: S = /s, š/, N = /m, n/, L = /r, l/

Possible codas: p, t, k, s, š, m, l (= ɬ), r / Complete syllable: ((S)C(C))V(V)(C)

Allophony: It is possible to pronounce /Cl/ [Cɬ], but this is not obligatory.

Stress and prosody:
Miwonša has a dynamic stress (which means that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed syllables). There is no clear rule about which syllables are stressed, but there are a few tendencies that might help: Sometimes stress is even relevant for the meaning: "łóika" = "they" (intransitive case) vs. "łoiká" = "they" (genitive case)
 * nouns are usually stressed on the penultimate syllable (exception: nouns ending in -an are usually stressed on the first syllable)
 * attributive adjectives and indefinite pronouns are usually stressed on the last syllable when succeeding a noun
 * adverbs ending in -oi are always stressed on the last syllable, otherwise on the penultimate syllable
 * copula verbs and infinitives are always stressed on the penultimate syllable
 * finite verbs with at least three syllables are usually stressed on the third-last syllable

LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY
A (B) C Č (D) E F (G) H I J K L Ł M N O P R S Š T U (V) W Y Z Ž

Digraphs: ai au an ei eu en iu in oi ou on ui un / nj lj lw (= ɲ ʎ ɬw) / ph th ch kh čh (= p' t' c' k' tʃ')

IMPORTANT: In this article accent marks (´) are used to help the reader to put the stress on the right position. In the official orthography, accents are not needed.

Declensions:
In Miwonša, there are 5 cases (intransitive case, ergative case, accuative case, genitive case, dative case) and 2 numbers (singular, plural), but no genders. Instead there are four declension classes. The ending of a noun decides to which declension class a noun belongs to:
 * 1) "a" class: čhér a (tree), káik a (cat), mac a (mother), miw a (love)
 * 2) "i" class: káip i (mountain), kján i (heart), mjúl i (worry), sjúl i (forest)
 * 3) "o" class: kwánč o (life), skjášk o (result), mjánr o (darkness), lwánk o (cirlce)
 * 4) "an" class: náčih an (teacher), páiwaš an (brother), twóškaš an (son)

Declension of the "a" class
Nouns ending in  have the ending "e" in the intransitive, ergative and accusative case plural!

Declension of the "i" class
Orthographic stem alternation:  → 

Declension of the "o" class
Phonetic stem alternation:  _i → [tɕ ɕ ɲ ʎ]; Orthographic (+ phonetic) stem alternation:  → 

Declension of the "n" class
Noun ending in "-an" always denote male persons and professions. There are several nouns that end in another consonant. They have the same paradigm like nouns ending in "-an", except that after palatal consonants, the ACC.SG suffix is "e".Furthermore, some suffixes of nouns belonging to the "n" class ending in another consonant are stressed.

Case syncretisms
Each declension class has diffferent case syncretisms:
 * "a" class: ACC.SG = DAT.SG; INT.PL = ACC.PL = DAT.PL
 * "i" class: INT.PL = ACC.PL = DAT.PL
 * "o" class: INT = ERG, ACC = DAT (SG and PL)
 * "n" class: INT.PL = ACC.PL

Demonstrative infixes
Miwonša has two infixes which function like demonstratives: "-aš" which means "this/that" and "-aw" which means "some/any". On the contrary to articles, these infixes are only used to emphasize explicitely the definiteness or indeniteness. As the degree of definiteness is often given by the context, these infixes are left out in most situations. The infix has to be placed between the stem and the suffix. The other case endings are always regular. The infixes have no impact on the stress.

Infix -aš-
In the "n" class, "-aš-" is shortened to "-š-" and placed between <-an-> and the case marker. It is also possible to pronounce the sequence <šsa> and <šsi> simply <šša> and <šši>, but not obligatory.

Infix -aw-
"-aw-" becomes "-au-" before suffxes beginning with a consonant, the suffix "i" becomes "e" after "-aw-". The allomorph "-áu-" is always stressed. In the INT.SG of the "i" class and the ACC.SG of the "n" class the suffix  is stressed to avoid confusions with plural forms.

The copula verbs "kwa", "máya" and "skúya" ("to be", "to become", "to remain")
"kwa" means "to be", "máya" means "to remain" and "skúya" means "to become". All arguments of copula verbs are in the intransitive case. In fact "kwa", "maya" and "skuya" are infinitives. In order to say that X is/remains/becomes Y, the suffix "-n" has to be used which indicates that the verb is finite. Examples:


 * Káika zjúnšo kwan. (= cat-INT.SG animal-INT.SG be-FIN → A cat is an animal )


 * Wáškašan ánro mayán. (=man.INT.SG father-INT.SG become-FIN → The man becomes a father.)


 * Zúrašo skáiwo skuyán. (= knowledge-DEF-INT.SG secret remain-FIN → This knowledge remains a secret.)

Incorporation of personal pronouns
It is possible to incorporate personal pronouns. In colloquial speech this is not obligatory.

When incorportated, "łoi", "łai" become "loi", "lai".In the singular, the interfix <š> is used between the incorporatewd pronoun and the ending "an". In the plural, the final vowel of the pronoun is dropped.

Examples:


 * Kwamíšan paiwašan. (= be-1-SG-FIN brother-INT.SG → I am the brother.)
 * Kwasjákan walja. (= be-3.SG.neutr.PL-FIN house-INT.PL → These are houses.)

Incorporation of adverbs
Some adverbs can be incorporated in "kwa", too:


 * ánhi - here → kwánhjan (here is/are...)
 * kóro - there → kwakoran (there is/are ...)
 * žai - not → kwažáiran (here/there is/are no ...)

Examples:


 * Kwánhjan čhera. → Here is a tree.
 * Kwakóran sjúli. → There is a forest.
 * Kwažáiran zánžo. → There is no city.

"to have", "to get" and "to keep"
In Miwonša, there is no direct equivalent for the English verb "to have". Instead, we use a copula verb. While the "possessor" is in the genitive or dative case, the "possessed thing" is in the intransitive case. The genitive case is used when the experiencer possesses the theme. The dative case is used when the theme is either a part, an inherent feature or temporary status of the experiencer.


 * kwa (to be) → kwa + DAT/GEN (to have)
 * maya (to become) → maya + DAT/GEN (to get)
 * skuya (to remain) → skuya + DAT/GEN (to keep)

Examples:


 * Žóhja šiy ó kwan. (nose-INT.SG you.DAT.SG be-FIN → You have a nose.)
 * Fjána šiy á kwan. (horse-INT.SG you.GEN.SG be-FIN → You have a horse.)
 * Chúswa šiy ó mayán. (answer-INT.SG you.DAT.SG become-FIN → You get an answer.)
 * Čwóna šiy á mayán. (book-INT.SG you.GEN.SG get-FIN → You get a book.)
 * Láisa šiy ó skuyán. (problem-INT.SG you.DAT.SG remain-FIN → You keep the problem.)
 * Khólja šiy á skuyán. (ring-INT.G you.GEN.SG remain-FIN → You keep the ring.)

Using the genitive case always implies that the object in the genitive case owns or will own the subject in the intransitive case. So "Khólja šiyó' skuyán." would be correct, too, but it would mean that in fact, the ring does not belong to the object.



Morphological categories of verbs
Tense, aspect and mode are expressed with clitics and/or adverbs, so they are no morphological categories of verbs. One unique feature of Miwonša is that verbs agree both with the subject and the direct object. Another interesting fact is that even incorporations of object nouns, indefinite pronouns and infinitives may still occur, although this is more a feature of Kĵatonša (Proto-Miwonša), so the use of incorporation in verbs is considered very formal and sometimes even archaic.

Voice and finiteness markers
Verbs in Miwonša usually have the structure:


 * [stem]+[agreement marker(s)]+[voice markers]+[finiteness marker(s)]

The following table contains all voice and finiteness markers (hyphens are used to seperate morphemes):

Verbs in Miwonša have five subtypes: Finite verbs, infinitives, participles, gerunds (= verbal nouns) and gerundives. You form a verb by adding the suffixes listed in the table behind the stem or, if they are present, behind the agreement markers. There will be many examples in the following sub sections. Summary of morphemes:
 * -a (active infinitive), -anži (passive infinitive), -ansti (reflexive infinitive), -anlwi (reciprocal infinitive), -asja (impersonal infinitive)
 * -an (non-infinitive)
 * -ar- (passive), -ast (reflexive), -alw (reciprocal), -asj (impersonal)
 * -š (participle), -za (gerunds), -ti (gerundives)

Agreement markers
Compared to the paradigm of personal pronouns, the agreement system is much easier. There are only 6 agreement markers:

Of course, it would be even more plausible to assume only five morphemes (two numbers: -i-, -a-; three persons: -m-, -š-, -w-), but for the sake of simplicity (especially in glossings) they are treated like single morphemes.

There are three options about how agreement markers can be used. If the verb has only one argument in the 3rd person, agreement markers are not needed at all, as long as the sole argument is mentioned in the sentences. If the sole argument is the first or the second person, agreement markers are obligatory. If the only argument (3rd person) is left out, the use of agreement markers is compulsory as well.

Examples:


 * zjučhumíwa - to burn (stem: zjučhum-) 
 *  Wáli zjučhúman. (The house is burning) 
 * Zjučhúm iw an. ( It is burning) 
 * funíwa - to sleep (stem: fun-) </i>
 * fun ím an ( I am sleeping)</i>

In transitive sentences, you simply place the object agreement behind the subject agreement:


 * míwka - to love (stem: miwk-)
 * Miwkímišan. - I love you. (love-1.SG-2.SG-FIN)
 * Miwkíšiman. - You love me. (love-2.SG-1.SG-FIN)
 * Miwkámiwan. - We love it. (love-1.PL-3.SG-FIN)

Morpho-Syntantic Alignment
Terminology:
 * [S-INT] = Subject in the intransitive case
 * [S-ERG] = Subject in the ergative case
 * [O-ACC] = Object in the accusative case
 * (AGR1) = agreement with the subject
 * (AGR2) = agreement with the object

Intransitive verbs
Structure:


 * (1) Finite verb form: [S-INT] [stem-(AGR1)-an]
 * (2) Infinitive: [stem-(AGR1)-a]
 * (3) Participle: [stem-(AGR1)-anš]
 * (4) Gerundive: [stem-(AGR1)-anti]

Examples for finite intransitive verbs:


 * Zjúnšo kwančán. (animal-INT.SG live-NINF→ The animal lives)
 * Lufišan? (sleep-2SG-NINF → Are you sleeping?)

Transitive verbs
Structure:


 * (1) Finite verb form: [S-ERG] [S-ACC] [stem-(AGR1)-(AGR2)-an]
 * (2) Infinitive: [stem-(AGR1)-(AGR2)-a]
 * (3) Participle: [stem-(AGR1)-(AGR2)-anš]
 * (4) Gerundive: [stem-(AGR1)-(AGR2)-anti]

Examples for finite transitive verbs:


 * Hánzo káikai mičán. (dog-ERG cat-ACC eat-NINF → The dog is eating the cat)
 * Káikai mičíwiwan. (cat-ACC eat-3SG-3SG-NINF → He/she/it is eating the cat)
 * Hánzo mičíwiman. (dog-ERG eat-3SG-3SG-NINF → The dog is eating him/her/it)
 * Káikai mičímiwan. (cat-ACC eat-1SG-3SG-NINF → I am eating the cat)
 * Mičímiwan. (eat-1SG-3SG-FIN → I am eating him/her/it)

Anti-passive verbs
Structure:


 * (1) Finite verb form: [S-ERG] [stem-(AGR1)-an]
 * (2) Infinitive: [stem-(AGR1)-a]
 * (3) Participle: [stem-(AGR1)-anš]
 * (4) Gerundive: [stem-(AGR1)-anti]

Examples for finite anti-passive verbs:


 * Hánzo mičán. (dog-ERG eat-NIN'F →' 'The dog is eating)
 * Míčiwan. (eat-3SG-NINF '→ He/she/it is eating)' 
 * Míčiman. (eat-1SG-NINF '→ I am eating)

Passive verbs
Structure:


 * (1) Finite verb form: [O-ACC] [stem-(AGR2)-ar-an]
 * (2) Infinitive: [stem-(AGR2)-anži]
 * (3) Participle: [stem-(AGR2)-ar-anš]
 * (4) Gerundive: [stem-(AGR2)-ar-anti]

Examples for finite passive verbs:

''
 * ''Káikai míčaran. (cat-ACC eat-PASS-NINF → The cat is being/gets eaten)
 * Mičíwaran. (eat-3SG-PASS-NINF → She is being/gets eaten)
 * Łwai míčaran. (she.ACC eat-PASS-NINF → She is being/gets eaten)

Reflexive verbs
Structure:


 * (1) Finite verb form: [S-INT] [stem-(AGR1)-ast-an]
 * (2) Infinitive: [stem-(AGR1)-ansti]
 * (3) Participle: [stem-(AGR1)-ast-anš]
 * (4) Gerundive: [stem-(AGR1)-ast-anti]

Examples for finite reflexive verbs:

''
 * Káiki míšwastan. (cat-INT.PL clean-REF-NINF → ''The cats are cleaning themselves)
 * Mišwáwastan. (clean-3PL-REF'-NINF → They are cleaning themselves)
 * Łáika míšwastan. (they.INT clean-REF-FIN → They are cleaning themselves)

Basic form
Actually, adjectives do not have a basic form, as (attributive) adjectivs always agree with the noun they descibe. Furthermore, adjectives cannot be used in predicative positions. Instead there are adjectival verbs. Therefore adverbs are treated as basic form, from which the attributive adjectives as well as adjectival verbs can be derived. There are two types of adjectival adverbs. Those ending in -oi (stressed on the last syllable) and those ending in another consonant (stressed on the penultimate syllable).

Examples:


 * tóšna (big), túšto (new), míčo (boring), luzói (long), macói (small), lamói (funny)

Attributive adjectives
Attributive adjectives are usually placed behind nouns. When there are more adjectives, however, it is also possible to place one adjective before the noun. Adjectives preceding nouns usually indicate that the adjective(s) behind the noun are subordinated. Adjectives are exactly declined like the nouns they refer to, except that there might be some irregulaties due to the final consonants of the stems which may differ of cours. However, in a complex noun phrase, containing at least one noun and one adjective, the noun can only take endings of the intransitive case, so that only the adjective shows the case. In the "n" class, the adjective has exactly the same declension as in the "o" class.


 * {| align="left" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="width: 500px;"

! scope="row"|CLASS ! scope="col"|A ! scope="col"|I ! scope="col"|O ! scope="col"|N ! scope="row"|INT.SG ! scope="row"|ERG.SG ! scope="row"|ACC.SG ! scope="row"|GEN.SG ! scope="row"|DAT.SG ! scope="row"|INT.PL ! scope="row"|ERG.PL ! scope="row"|ACC.PL ! scope="row"|GEN.PL ! scope="row"|DAT.PL
 * čwóna tuštá
 * wáli tuští
 * sónro tuštó
 * čafján tuštó
 * čwóna tuštó
 * wáli tušcó
 * sónro tuštó
 * čafján tuštó
 * čwóna tuštái
 * wáli tušcái
 * sónro tuštói
 * čafján tuštói
 * čwóna tušták
 * wáli tušcák
 * sónro tuštók
 * čafján tuštók
 * čwóna tuštái
 * wáli tušcás
 * sónro tuštói
 * čafján tuštók
 * čwóni tuští
 * wálja tušcá
 * sónra tuštá
 * čafjánje tuštá
 * čwóni tuštáš
 * wálja tušcé
 * sónra tuštá
 * čafjánje tuštá
 * čwóni tuští
 * wálja tušcá
 * sónra tuští
 * čafjánje tuští
 * čwóni tuštói
 * wálja tušcék
 * sónra tuštái
 * čafjánje tuštái
 * čwóni tuští
 * wálja tušcá
 * sónra tuští
 * čafjánje tuští
 * }

Comparatives and superlatives
Comparatives and superlatives are formed by infixing <-ur-> between the stem and the ending of the adjective. When the adjective succeeds the noun, it is a comparative, when the adjective preceeds it, it is a superlative.


 * Examples:


 * šúli (smart), šulúri (smarter, smartest)
 * wóšpo (happy), wošpúro (happier, happiest)
 * kimói (beautiful), kimurói (more, most beautiful)
 * krašói (difficult), krašurói (more, most difficult)

Example declension:

ADJECTIVAL VERBS
Derivation of adjectival verbs

Infinitives Adjectival verbs have the structure (prefix)+stem+íwa

Many final stems of consonants become palatal:


 * [t th s z ts h r] → [či čhi ši ži či ši ži]

Stems ending in palatal consonants change their orthography before "-ira":


 * [pj c kj tsj čj mj nj fj sj zj šj žj hj lj y] → [pi ti ki ti či mi ni fi si zi ši ži ši li ši]

Examples:


 * šei (good, stem: "šey-") - šešíra (to be good) 
 * ulinói (easy) - uliníra '(to be easy)
 * líšta (terrible) - liščíra (to be terrible)
 * parói (loud) - pažira (to be loud)

Types of adjectival verbs
There are at least four typess of adjectival verbs:

Conjugation of adjectival verbs
On the contrary to infinitives ending in "-iwa", "-ir-" is not dropped when adding agreement markers. Instead, they are placed behind "-ir-". As "-ir-" takes the first agreement slot, it is not possible to insert two agreement markers, although verbs with the prefix "ran-" are transitive.

Comparison of adjectival verbs
coming soon

Personal Pronouns
Miwonša is a pro-drop language, which means that personal pronouns in the nominative, ergative and accusative case can be left out, when the verb already shows who is involved in the action. Miwonša has no grammatical gender. The "3rd person masc." pronouns denote male persons, the "3rd person. fem." pronouns female persouns and the "3rd person neutral" is used for things and abstact nouns. In the plural, groups of male and female persons are always neutral. Concerning the first person plural, "mika" means "we+you", whereas "raika" means "we, but not you".

Demonstrative pronoun "ul"
As definiteness can be also expressed with the suffixes -wa- and -ša-, the adjectival demonstrative "ul" has adopted another meaning: Since it has different endings in every case, it is almost always used to distinguish cases when the ending of the noun is ambigue. The number, however, has to be shown by the noun, as the pronoun does not distinguish between singular and plural. When "ul" has the syntactic position of a nown, the declensions is a little different:

Examples:


 * Wáškašano wáncai úlai šúnkwai thonšánči.
 * (= The man showed the girl "to the daugther")
 * Wáškašano wáncai úlsu šónkwai thonšánči.
 * (= "The man showed the daughter to the girl")

Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns
Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns are nearly only used in the genitive and inj the dative case. The pronouns can be used in the accusative case only if the verb is transitive (which means that it requires a subject in the ergative case and an object in the accusative case). As reflexivity and reciprocity are usually marked in the verb (which requires a subject in the intransitive case then), the accusative pronouns are only used to emphasize that the action is reflexive/reciprocal.

Examples:


 * Páiwašanj e króžastan. 
 * (brother-INT.PL help-REF-FIN → the brothers help themselves (A helps A, B helps B))
 * Páiwašanj a  hánrai krožán.
 * (brother-ERG.PL REF-ACC help-FIN → the brothers help themselves (not someone else or each other))
 * Páiwašanj e  króžalwan. 
 * (brother-INT.PL help-REC-FIN → the brothers help each other (A helps B, B helps A))
 * Páiwašanj a yúnrai krožán.
 * (brother-ERG.PL REC-ACC help-FIN → the brothers help each other (not someone else/ only themselves)

Clitics
Tense, aspet and mode are not marked with affixes in the verb, but with clitics, which can be placed at many positions (for example also behind nouns). They have no impact on the stress of preceding words.

Example


 * Čhánkošano káikai žanán. (man-ERG cat-ACC see-FIN → The man sees the cat.)
 * Čhánkošanoči káikai žanán. (man-ERG=PAST cat-ACC see-FIN → The man saw the cat.)
 * Čhánkošano káikaiči žanán. (man-ERG cat-ACC=PAST see-FIN → The man saw the cat.)
 * Čhánkošano káikai žanánči. (man-ERG cat-ACC see-FIN=PAST → The man saw the cat.)

Another important feature of the tense/mode/aspect system in Miwonša is that clitics indicating the past or future tense are not needed when there are other deictic words in the sentence that point out the time:


 * Žwora chánkošano káikai žanán.
 * (tomorrow man-ERG cat-ACC see-FIN → Tomorrow the man will sees the cat.)
 * Łaiwa chánkošano káikai žanán.
 * (yesterday man-ERG cat-ACC see-FIN → Yesterday the man saw the cat.)