Lutanian

The conlang uses the Latin script - basic alphabet with various diacritics. It is a pluricentric language regarding pronunciation, vocabulary and writing.

The letter W [vé doule, wau] is not a part of the alphabet, but the letter J is included instead representing the sound / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/ with the alphabetical name / ͡jʝe/ or /je/. The alphabetic letter C is read /ts/ like the sound in German.

Main characteristics of pronunciation

The main values of consonants in stressed syllables are:

A /a/, E /ɛ/ ~ /e/, I, Y /i/, O /o/, U /u/ (as found in the alphabet)

â, î = /ə/

Note: i, î, and y can represent intervocalic /j/ (a semiconsonant). Word initially, i (or y) in front of a vowel is pronounced /j/. The diacritic ^ on the vowel u (û) indicates the semivowel sound /w/.

The circumflex on o (ô) denotes a long open pronunciation or a diphthong: /wo/ ~ /(w)ɔ:/ ~ /wɔ:/ (equivalent alternative pronunciations).

The alphabetic consonants are pronouunced mainly as in English (unless indicated otherwise, see below). B /b/, D /d/, G /ɡ/, P /p/, T /t/, K /k/ are not aspirated.

There are three ways to read the alphabet:

1) The conventional: add the vowel sound /e/ after consonants B, C /͡tse/, D, G*/ɡe/ ~ /ʒe/, J /je/ ~ /͡jʝe/, Nj (ň), /nje/, P, Q* /ke/ or /ku:/*, T, V* /ʋe/, X* /ʃe/ or /iks/*, Lj /ʎe/, Z /ze/~ /dze/.

Add /ɛ/ ~ /e/ in front of consonant sounds: F /ɛ̯f:(ə)/, L /ɛ̯ɫ(ə)/ ~ /ɛ̯l(ə)/, M /ɛ̯m(ə)/, N /ɛ̯n(ə)/, R /ɛr:(ə)/, S /ɛ̯s:(ə)/ (long consonants are: /f:/, /r:/, /s:/)

Y= /ips/, used primarily as the conjunction "and", replaced by et /e/ either if the preceding word ends or the following word starts in a vowel.

Special consonants which are pronounced with the vowel: -a /a/ : H /xa(k)/, K /ka:/ or /ka̯p˺/

Special consonant that can be pronounced with /e/ or /u/: Q /ke:/ or /ku:/, V /ʋe/ or /ʋu:/

2) The simplified first: add /e/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some differences are: F /f:e/, H /xe:/, L /le:/, S /s:e/ etc.

3) The simplified second: add /ə/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some examples: H /xə/, L /lə/, S /s:ə/ etc.

Nasals - letters with ogonek diacritic (a, e, u with ogonek) are not included in the alphabet count as they are considered to be variants of the main vowel. They are pronounced the same in stressed and unstressed syllables:

Ą ą /ɑ̃/, non nasal variant /ɔ/,

Ę ę /ɛ̃/, non nasal variant /ɛ/, regionally /e:/

-on, alternative: Ų ų  /ɔ̃/, non-nasal variant /ɔ/, /on/, /ɔ(n)/.

These three letters are important as distinctive grammatical endings. They can sometimes appear inside a word root (like męs /mɛ̃:s/), but their pronunciation word internally can also be an oral equivalent of the vowel (similar or identical to a, e, u or o: męs /mɛ:s/ ~ /mẽ:s/).

Vowel reduction feature

Final syllable sound -e is reduced to /ə/ in an unstressed syllable, not applicable to diphthongs (like -ei) except dialectally. This is important for grammatical endings: -e (without diacritics) vs -ę. The exact distribution of stressed variants /ɛ/ vs /e/ and /o/ vs /ɔ/ is not significant, although it is suggested (sometimes by accent diacritics, see below). Unstressed -e- in other positions is /e/ in the standard variety, and /ə/ in certain dialects. Unstressed -o- is always /o/ in standard pronunciation (not /ɔ/).

Dialectally, variations are found with reduction of unstressed -e- in all syllables and also in the unstressed diphthong -ei-, reduction of unstressed -a- to /ɐ/ or /ə/, and/or unstressed -o- to /u/ (rare, region dependent), all by influence of the speakers' native languages.

Using accute and grave accents: The marked accent denotes the stressed (tonic) syllable. The existing forms are: á, é, í, ó, ú (with acute accent) and à, è, ò, ù (with grave accent).

Generally, the acute accent represents a slightly longer vowel in open syllables (like á /a:/), while the grave accent generally denotes a somewhat shorter vowel: à /a̯/ in closed syllables. As word final vowels, letters with accents may be used with grammatical value (as endings), so the brevity rule does not always apply (the grammar rule dictates pronunciation, like in the verbal infinitives: cantà /kan.'ta/ - to sing).

The acute or grave accent on e and o also have a recommended pronunciation with different qualities:

é /e/ and è /ɛ/ (as in French), ó /o/ and ò /ɔ/ (all recommended). The letter ô denotes a long, open sound /ɔ:/, or a diphthong /wɔ:/ ~ /wɔ:/ (recommended): as in: oôs/ous - eggs, dôs/dous/duos - two.

Monosyllabic words only may have acute or grave accent for grammatical reasons (example: bé - letter name, B, èsse - letter name, S).

Vowel combination: -ai- is pronounced as a monophthong /ɛ/, word finally /e/. This doesn't apply when diacritics are used: âi /əj/, ài /a̯j/, ái /a:j/, aí /a.'i/ (the latter example represents two syllables).

Diphthongs: diphthongs are formed with all of the vowels a, e, i, o, u except for the combinations: ae, oe, ai. The sound /ə/ makes the diphthongs /əj/ (âi, îi) and or /wə/ (uâ).

The strong components of the diphthongs are: a, e, o (/a/, /e/, /o/, "a" is the strongest), and the weak components are i, u. In diphtongs like ea, oa, e becomes the equivalent of weak -i- /j/, and o the equivalent of a semivocalic -u- /w/, so ea = /e̯a/ ~ /ja/, oa = ua = /wa/. If not marked by diacritics the weak (i, u) combinations are pronounced with the full first vowel: ui /uj/, iu /iw/, word initially iu-/ju/. The combinations eo and ao practically do not appear as they are identical in pronunciation to eu /ew/ and au /aw/. An accent mark may change the stressed part of the diphthong, or produce two separate syllables, as in eó /e̯o/ or /jo/ - identical to io /jo/; aí /a.'i/ - two syllables, as the vowel "a" cannot be made a weak part of a diphthong.

Some words morphologically have separate syllables in place of the diphthong, e.g. ei /'e.i/ or /e:j/ = they (from e + ending -i), eos /'e.os/ - them (from e- + -os), virtúe /ʋir.'tu.ə/ (stem + ending -e), melodíe /me.lo.'ði.ə/  ~ /mə-/.

Spelling considerations for the diphthong -ie

If the consonants D, N, R, T are followed by the diphthong -ie in an unstressed syllable, write ďe /djə/, ňe /ɲə/, ře /ɾjə/, ťe /tjə/. In stressed syllables you should write: dě /dje/, ně /nje/, rě /rje/, tě /tje/. With other consonants the unstressed form is written -ie /jə/, and the stressed form: -ě /je/. If the printing options are limited, every -ě can be replaced by -ie (alternative spelling).

Consonant sounds

We will explain consonants with diacritics, digraphs representing one sound and special sounds. With all consonants, word final devoicing may occur e.g. /b/ → /p/ etc., depending on the speaker.

B̌ b̌ (B with caron): /w/, identical to û /w/: example: pob̌l /powl/ (alternative script - B'/b' or B̌ and lowercase b').

C - /k/ in syllables ca, co, cu, câ /kə/, and in front of consonants like: cr e me /'kre:.mə/;

/s/ or /ts/ in syllables ce, ci, cî. Note: cai = /kaj/ (avoided, breaks the ai /ɛ/ vowel rule in favour  the ca /ka/ rule).

CC - follows the rule of C + consonant (like CTI /kt(s)i/, CCI /ksi/)

Ç - word initially and finally /͡ts/, regionally /s/, word-internally between vowels: /s/, after a consonant: /ts/.

G /ɡ/ in syllables ga, go, gu (+a, â, o or cons.), gă /ɡə/; /ʒ/ in syllables ge, gi, gî; /dʒ/ in word-final -eig /e̯dʒ/, -aig /a̯dʒ/ or /ɛ̯dʒ/, otherwise word finally /ɣ/ (recommended in unstressed syllables), or /k/, /k˺/, /ɡ/ (voicing in "liaison").

GU /ɡ/ in front of -i, -e, -î: gui /ɡi/, gue, guî; otherwise as other rules provide. In some areas (dialectally), GU + vowel always gives /g/.

TG - in intervocalic or word-final position: /dʒ/ (regionally spelt TJ)

Note*: gai = /ɡaj/, guai = /ɡɛ/, gûai /ɡwɛ/

J - pronounced as / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/. JJ is marked: /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/. TJ, CJ, KJ= /͡tʃ/. SJ = /ʃ/, ZJ = /ʒ/, GJ = /dʒ/, HJ = /ç/

Lj - /ʎ/ or regionally /j:/ ~ /jl/, (Spanish variant) /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/, geminated (spelling): jlj /ʎ:/, regionally spelt: LH

H - mute (not pronounced), when pronunciation is needed it is written double: hh /x/ ~ /h/, as in the letter name: H: hhá /xa/.

Qu - /kw/ in syllables qua, quo, quâ, /k/ in syllables que, qui, quî. Note: quai = /kɛ/.

S - /s/, in intervocalic position /z/, even accross words (by linking). Regionally: always /s/. The geminated -SS- is always pronounced /s/.

X - /dz/ in syllables xa, xo, xu, (rare), /ʃ/ ~ /ɕ/ in syllables xe, xi, xî, xâ, eix /e(j)ʃ/, aix /a̯(j)ʃ/, and after T in all contexts (see TX).

May be /ks/ in internationalisms like taxi /'ta̯ksi/. Ortographically: xia /ʃa/ ~ /ɕa/, xiu /ʃju/~ /ɕ:u/ xio /ʃo/ ~ /ɕo/ (without diacritics).

** in -aix the a+i rule is broken in favour of the pronunciation: /a̯ʃ/, /ajʃ/.

* TX = /͡tʃ/ in all contexts.

Z - /z/,  only regionally /dz/.

The consonant D in intervocalic position can be pronounced as /ð/ - recommended.

The consonants D, N, R, T, have palatalised versions: Ď/ď /dj/~ /dʐ/, Ň/ň /ɲ/, Ř/ř /rj/ ~ /ɾj/, Ť/ť /tj/ ~ /tj/, used in front of vowels with a grammatical value. Alternative spellings are with an apostrophe or the tilde (~): D'/d', N'/ n' or Ñ/ñ, R'/r' and T'/t'. Since the ň can be geminated (-ňň-), the apostrophe would be used only once after double n: aňňos / añños / ann'os /'a̯.ɲ(.)os/.

Gemminated consonants, if they appear, can be pronounced long, e.g. -SS- /s:/, -RR- /r:/. They are mainly used to clearly indicate short (closed) syllables (CVC).

Word stress (accent)

Variable nominal words (nouns, adjectives, pronouns) receive stress on the penultimate syllable of their full plural nominative form (if the word ends in a vowel + -s), and generally the same place of stress is maintained in all inflected forms (including different genders of adjectives).

Following the rule above

- most singular words ending in a vowel have stress on the penultimate vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-), and

- most singular words ending in a consonant (including etymological, but dropped final -n, -l, -r) have stress on the last vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-).

E.g.

cugine - cugines (subject form sg./pl.) - kitchen(s) /ku̯. 'ʒi.nə(s)/

cătăine - cătenes - chain(s) /kə. 'təj.nə/ /kə. 'te:.nəs/

natiú[n] - natiunes - nation(s) /na̯.'tsju.nəs/

natíu (natif, natí) - natíos - native /na̯.' tiw/ /na̯.'ti̯.os/ (adj. masculine sg./pl.)

The adjective forming suffix -ic- /i̯k/ and its variant -ec- /ək/ cannot be stressed, so the stress moves one syllable to the left in these forms: històric, classic /i̯.'stɔ̯.ri̯k/ /'kla̯.s:ik/. The default penultimate syllable stress in these masculine singular subject forms is maintained in all other forms: hist ò ricos, cl a ssicos.

Exceptions include the instances when the vowel which should receive stress is -i- or -u- or belongs to a so-called unstressed syllabic infix (mostly -u- or /ə/):

c o nsul /'kon.sul/ - a consul, h o măns /'ɔ.məns/ - of a man, man's, c o rpures /'kur.purəs/

Action doer morpheme syllable -or, -ur is unstressed when no ending follows (with -Ø ending), but stressed in other forms. This creates an exception to the accentuation rule, which is not followed in all regions.

pintur/pintur - pintores - painter(s); de pintôre /pin'two:.rə/ - from a painter

The action doer suffix -ul- cannot be stressed: consul - consules - a consul, de consule - from a consul

Verbal forms have the stress determined by grammatical form, but the default stress is on the penultimate syllable of the full form (also zero elements must be counted). The verbal forms have a feature of not pronouncing the final syllable -e is plural conjugation forms (which is also counted as a syllabic element).

cant-u or cant (-Ø) I sing (stem + ending).

Grammar

$1. Nouns and adjectives

Lutanian nouns and adjectives distinguish:

a) gender (masculine/M, feminine/F, neuter or neutral/N)

b) number (singular and plural)

c) case (grammatical and euphonic)

d) definiteness (definite and indefinite, through form and the usage of articles)

The default word order is S-V-O.

Lutanian nouns are divided in four groups (I - IV) based on their morphology and assigned characteristics (e.g. gender). Adjectives have the sane morphology as nouns (of groups I - III), but are organised in only two groups.

The genders are distributed as follows:

- group I - F, group II - M or N (animate -M, inanimate M or N), group III - F or M+N, group IV - F. The feminine gender nouns can be animate or inanimate. M and N nouns can be selected based on Latin roots or arbitrarily/euphonically. Animate nouns will be masculine (not neuter) except for some nouns which do not make explicit reference to biological sex, like animal (group III), fant (group III - child).

Most nouns /adjectives distinguish at least two grammatical - functional and euphonic forms: subject form (lexical form or the nominative) and non - subject form, which is typically preceded by a preposition - prepositional [case] form.

In the euphonic declension, a singular number noun can have the ending zero (-Ø ) or a vocalic ending (-a, -e, -u).

Group I nouns always have a non-zero ending: -a for the definite form and -e /ə/ for the indefinite singular form (originating from a phonetic reduction of -a to -ă /ə/, ortographically always -e). Example: (la) casa / une case - the house / a house

The subject (nominative form - singular ) has the default endings: -a (definite, group I), -Ø (no ending, groups II - IV). E.g.

casa - house (group I), mur - wall (group II), nuit - night (group III)

The subject ending can be a non-zero for certain phonological and grammatical reasons (to emphasize gender or definiteness) group II -u, group III/IV -e. The given vowels (-a, -u, -e) are called thematic endings for the respective groups.

Examples: t e mplu - neuter gender - group II (also phonologically induced ending), hospit a l(e) - neuter gender - group III.

cr i se - crisis (F gender, phonologically induced ending, from Lat. cris is),

nuit - night (F gender, no phonologically induced ending, from Lat. nox ).

The vowels -u and -e (as thematic) are optional/euphony based for neuter gender nouns (in groups II and III) and in group IV nouns (which are of F gender). The vocalic ending (-a or -e as definite/indefinite) is mandatory for group I nouns in singular (which are feminine).

The prepositional form (or case) in singular has the default thematic vowel endings: -a (definite, group I), -u (group II), -e (groups III/IV).

Whenever a singular noun is preceded by a preposition (with exceptions for direct/indirect objects), it can have a thematic ending (characteristic of its group). The ending -a is mandatory, others are optional (euphony based):

în casa - in (the) house (group I), în mund(u) - on the world (group II), în nuit(e) - in the night (group III), în face /în faç (group IV).

Group IV noun stems usually end in -i- (stressed or unstressed). The unstressed stem-final -i- is orthographically dropped if the ending is -e(s) or Ø, with possible palatalization effect on the preceding consonant, in all noun groups, e.g.

faç (stem faci- + -Ø) - the face

soç (stem soci + -Ø) - partner (M), compare: con sociu /'so(t)sju/ - with a partner.

soce (from soci + -e) - partner (F), compare: con socia /'so(t)sja/ - with a partner.

Other frequent sound changes found in nominal words are:

a) loss of an original stem final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. pą /pɑ̃:/ ~ /pɔ:/, oblique: con pan(e) /'pa:n(ə)/ - with bread (gr. III, M), mą /mɑ̃:/ ~ /mɔ:/, oblique: în man(u) (II, M), in a hand, natiú - nation,

fi (from etymological fi[lj]) - oblique con fiu -with the boy (II), compare F form con filja - systematically maintained consonant -lj-;

ami[c] - oblique con amiu /a.'miw/ (ami[c] + -u) - with a friend (M, gr II), compare F form con am i a (systematic loss of -c-)

b) vocalisation of an original stem-final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. riu -Ø (from Latin riv-us), oblique în riu (analysed as ri(v)- + ending -u).

c) diphthongisation of stressed stem vowel -o- or -u- and -e-:

- group I: stressed -o-/-u- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -a, or -ą: une scole - la scoala /'skwa.la/ - school

- group III (F/N): stressed -o- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e, -ę or -a: une flor, flur - de floare /'flu̯a.rə/ - from a flower

- group III (M anim.): stressed -o-/-u- > -ô- /wo:/ in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e: un p i ntur - de pintôre - from a painter.

These changes do not occur in the plural nor when -o-/-u- is followed by -n-: avion /a'ʋjɔ̃(n)/~/a'ʋjo:(n)/, /'u:(n)/, leon.

Nouns of group II (u-nouns by Latin heritage) which are designated as neuter gender by the speaker, can also optionally have the ending -e (singular), if it would make them more similar to their English or French language equivalents. E.g.

lu templu / lu temple - the temple (group II or III), pal a u - pal a ce (group II or III) (consonantic sound change - stem palatsi- → palaçi- + -u/-e)

lu vidriu / lu v i dre /'ʋiðrə/- glass (group II or III).

The direct object form marking (accusative) is not mandatory, and it can be:

a )  identical to the subject form (inanimate non-feminine and all plural)

b ) similar to the non-subject form (only in sg.) - thematic, with nasal ending employed for all animate and all feminine gender nouns in sg.

Nasal endings correspond to their oral counterparts by group: I -ą /ɑ̃/, II -on /ɔ̃/, III and IV: -ę /ɛ̃/.

The genitive case singular

To express a possessive relation or partition you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  de + noun  (for abstracts terms), or noun +  a(L) + noun .

E.g. une t a ce de v i n(u) - a glass of wine,   c a rta di acc o rd(iu) - an agreement letter, amic a(l) fiu - a friend of the boy.

Optional, inherent endings for genitive nouns in singular are: -i (F), -s (M/N gender). The preposition al eitherway precedes a noun of masculine or neuter gender (to avoid confusion with the plural).

Most nouns of groups I and IV (i-stems) can receive any ending besides -a (not possible in IV) on a base form ending with -e- (the intervening -e-):

case + -i = c a sei /'ka:ze(j) / - of the house (I), filje + -i = fi ljei - of the girl (I), fac(i)-+-e-+ -i = f a cei /'fa̯t.͡tsje(j)/ - of the face (IV).

In group III F gender noun stem can simply receive the ending -i, but marked -ei is also possible and optional for all (frequent for animate nouns):

flor + -i = fl o ri - to a flower, actrí + -(e)i = actr i i, actríei of the actress.

Examples for masculine and neuter: al murs - of the wall, al camps /'kam(p)s/ - of the camp, al a ctors /'at.turs/ - of the actor.

If the ending -s is not phonetically applicable, only the thematic singular ending is used for a genitive: e.g. al templu - of the temple.

In indefinite phrases, the preposition al /als helps to distinguish singular from weak plural (in -s) of M and N nouns:

al murs - of the wall, als murs - of the walls.

The dative case singular - indirect object

To express an indirect object (dative) you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  a + noun . Examples:

a muru - to the wall, towards the wall,  a fiu - to the boy.

Optional, inherent endings for dative nouns in singular are same as for the genitive of feminine gender, and same as the thematic endings for M/N genders (as given above). The preposition a is essentially not required to introduce a singular indirect object, but frequently needed for clarity.

( a ) filjei -  to  a girl,  uni gienei - to a woman,  li  filjei - to the girl

The plural form of nouns

The plural of nouns is formed by adding "thematic" endings to noun stems:

-es /əs/ - groups I, III, IV: (la) casa - (les) cases /'ka:.zəs/ - house(s), filja - filjes - girl(s), flor - flores - flower(s) (III), faç - faces (IV).

-os /os/, /us/ - group II: (el) mur - (los) muros - wall(s), templu/temple - templos/temples (II or III), riu (from Lat. riv-us) -rios, rius (from Lat. rivos).

A weak ending -s is used in euphonic contexts for M and N nouns, e.g. mur - murs (wall, walls). In a euphonic context, the ending -os can be pronounced (and written) -us (murus, rius, estudius). The definite article (M/N) is always written los and pronounced in two ways: /los/ or /lus/.

Certain "borrowings", insufficiently adapted to regular patterns, usually have the plural ending -s: taxi - t a xis, metró - metrós, a lbum - a lbums, café - cafés (all of neuter gender).

An optional (euphonic) ending for nouns preceded by a preposition (excluding direct objects) is the non-thematic -is (for all groups). E.g.

de muris - from walls.

Genitive plural can be expressed with the noun ending -is, without a preposition: e.g.

casa canis - the house of dogs, "dogs' house".

Adjectives

A lexical adjective has semantic forms for all three genders (M/F/N), but they might not be fully distinctive in forms of the singular and/or plural.

Adjectives correspond to noun forms of groups I - III (endings -a, -u, -e), and they are classified in two groups.

1st group or dual-theme adjectives change like nouns of group I in their feminine form (endings -a/-e and -es), and nouns of group II in the masculine and neuter forms (endings -Ø/-u and -os). The feminine gender form is always distinctive.

E.g. une filje nălte - la filja nălta - les filjes înaltes - a/the tall girl(s)

un mur înalt - el mur înalt - los muros nălt(o)s - a/the high wall(s)

u(nu) templu nălt(u) - lu templu nălt(u) - los templos nălt(o)s - a/the high temple(s).

un' hospital(e) înalte - l ' hospital(e) înalt(u) - los hospitales nălt(o)s - a/the high hospital(s) (group III noun - neuter)

The endings -e and -u are optional (for N gender nouns/adjectives) and are distributed euphonically. In a complete syntagm, usually the full inflections are kept in all nouns, and in all terms if the agreement endings are different (examples 2,3,4).

In the genitive and dative, adjectives usually receive weak endings (except the strong -a), which correspond to the following feminine forms:

pôrta casei nălte - the gates of a building - tall     GEN. sg.: F noun -ei or -i; adj -e

a filjei/ filji nălti - to a girl - tall                                     DAT. sg. F noun -ei or -i; adj. -i

2nd group or e-thematic (mono-) adjectives change like nouns of group III in all genders (endings -Ø/-e and -es). The inflected forms can be identical for all genders, but the nominative (subject sg.) form can receive an optional ending -e for the feminine or neuter gender, while it is always -Ø for masculine (animate) nouns.

M: un parc  verd    -     el parc verd  -    los parcos verd(e)s - a/the green park(s)

F: une flor verd(e) -   la flor verd(e) -   les flores verdes - a/the green flower(s)

N: u mar(e) verd(e) -  lu mar(e) verd(e) - los mares verd(e)s - a/the green sea(s)

§2. Articles and definiteness

In a semantic sense, the articles are not obligatory in Lutanian, their usage depends on the speaker. Syntactically, a minimum usage of determiners may be obligatory.

Nouns (or adjectives) ending in -e cannot be used without a determiner or some other part of a syntagm (preposition, adjective, article or other):

e.g. une case (I), la crise (III), în hospitale - in hospital. A name of an object or a proper name - Hospital(e) central(e) (a syntagm)

Definite morphology

Certain nouns exhibit separate indefinite and definite singular forms, others do not. In group I nouns, there is a systematic distinction between -a forms (definite) and -e forms (indefinite): une case - a house                        casa - (the) house

Some group III nouns may take the ending -a for the definite form:

a ) neuter nouns derived from Greek (stem in -ém-): (u) problem(e) - a problem              problema - (the) problem, pl. problemes

b ) agent nouns in -ist-Ø (M or F): artist(e), dentist(e) (group I - F or III - M)   > artista, dentista (M or F definite)

c ) nouns with phonological final -e in the nominative, like crise > crisa (but only to represent an oblique - non-subject definite form).

A subgroup of nouns in group III changes the final consonant s > t for the definite form, e.g. une pars - (la) part - a/the part, (-) gens - people, (la) gent - the people (collective noun).

Articles

Lutanian articles are: definite (stem -l-) or indefinite (stem un- > one).

Usage

General (generic) terms are considered definite and the article is optional (especially in the plural), however, they might be syntactically necessary (for terms ending in -e (see above).

Proper names of people, objects or abstract concepts are also considered definite but they do not bear the definite article (except for object/concept names that might also be considered common terms): e.g.(l') Hospital central, los Estaus Unius.

Proper names (e.g. countries) that contain the conjunction "and" do not bear the article in any circumstance: Trinitat y Tobago, Antigua et Barbuda.

Oblique articles (possessive genitive/dative) may be necessary even in proper names (not of people) as to provide sub-definition of terms (or the "direction" of property).

Indefinite articles specifically indicate a new term (unknown to speakers) or a random item from a set. They are never obligatory and don't have plural forms. They are pro-clitics to nominal words.

The indefinite article

The indefinite article is always used before a noun or a nominal phrase.

* The prepositional case form. Complex elision - between vowels. The form is identical to the elided generic preposition na. ** Syntactic particle (if full article is not used).

A preposition is placed before the indefinite article, e.g. d'unu muru - from a wall, spr(e)-una filja /sprju.na'fi̯.ʎa/ - about a girl, într-un 'hospitale - in a hospital, într-una casa - in a house.

The marking of the direct object in nouns and adjectives is optional, and the indefinite articles are non-nasal: un/unu (M/N - agrees with the noun), a /a/ or una (F).

Syntactically, the prepositions per, ad, contre indicate a direct object, so the article una is acceptable: per + a = per a, pra, per + u(n) - pru(n), contr-a, contr-una, ad a (ad una), ad-un (+ a noun in the basic form).

The definite article in Lutanian can be:

a) pro-clitic to a term (for the subject and direct object, nom./acc. cases), or

b) (optionally) placed after the noun (as a suffix), when the noun is preceded by a preposition. In noun-adjective phrases, the definite article usually comes attached to the noun, and exceptionally an adjective (for emphasis). * The oblique case definite articles may optionally be used as suffix forms (prepositional + dative case). **The genitive singular article is always a SUFFIX.

The suffix article forms are slightly euphonically adapted - always unstressed: thematic case sg.: M/N: -lu/-le, F: -la/-ja/-a, dative singular -i, plural (from lis) : -eis (F), -iis (M/N).