Adwan

The Adwanic language, (English: Adwan, French: Adouanne, Spanish: Aduana, Pacardian: Adwana, Adwan: Aðwana) is an inflecting, isolated language. It is the language of the Adwanic People, or the Chiðauma Aðwani.

Features:
 * Adwan is a fusionally synthetic language. This means that words change depending on their usage (I am would be það, yet you are could either be þus or þuš, depending on the number).
 * Adwan also expresses a very agglutinative nature when it comes to verbs, which conjugated by stringing affixes together.
 * Verbs in Adwan are conjugated to three persons, two numbers, three tenses, three aspects, four voices, and four moods.
 * Adwan lacks auxilliary verbs and modal verbs, instead making extensive use of affixes to change modality, aspect, tense, mood and voice.


 * While Adwan expresses traits for a pro-dropping language, personal pronouns are commonly used to accustom the AV3 rule.
 * Adwan declines nouns for number, grammatical gender, and grammatical case.
 * Adwan has 7 cases; nominative, genitive, accusative, dative, ablative, locative and vocative, and 2 numbers; singular and plural.
 * Adwan is a syllable-timed language. Every syllable in Adwan gets about the same amount of length -- except for the rare syllables that follow geminates.
 * Loanwords to Adwan are generally rare; about 15-25% of Adwan's vocabulary is shared with other European languages (while mesa means table in Spanish, it means island in Adwan).
 * Coordinating conjunctions have two, very different forms, which depend on what they're connecting. While clauses use traditional, separate conjunctions, listed items use proclitics, or morphemes that work like affixes and depend on the word they're attached to, but are grammatically independant.
 * Adwan is syllable timed; stress is always put on the penultimate syllable unless stated otherwise (acute accents over vowels show irregular stress rules, which are incredibly common).

Lexicon
The Adwanic Lexicon can be found here.

Phrases
Adwanic Phrases can be found here.

Phonology
Adwan empoys 30 consonants, 7 vowels and 13 diphthongs.

Consonants

 * The phoneme /b/ does not exist in Adwan.
 * The phoneme /ŋ/ is not an allophone of n. /n/ does not velarize before velar consonants.
 * The phoneme /ʝ/ is an allophone of /j/ when /j/ precedes vowels.
 * The phoneme /ç/ is an allophone of /x/ and /h/ when /x/ and /h/ precede /j/ or /ʝ/.
 * The phoneme /ɬ/ is not an allophone of /l; however, [l̥] is an allophone of [ɬ].
 * The phoneme /ʔ/ is not represented in writing, nor does it have any significant effect (it is purely dialectical).
 * When voiceless plosives end a word, they are typically aspirated.

Vowels

 * [e] is an allophone of [ɛ].

Diphthongs
In diphthongs, the phoneme [ɛ] changes to [e].

Phonotactics
Syllables in Adwan follow a relatively simple set of rules in formation. Usually, they follow a CV pattern, though it is not uncommon to see CCV, CCCV, and CCVCC. Typically, the generalized rule for syllables in Adwan is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C).

Note, diphthongs are considered one vowel, and ch is considered one consonant.

However, the end to words in Adwan is limited, as certain letters cannot end an undeclined word:
 * Nouns in Adwan end in either a, c, ċ, č, d, ð, ď, e, f, g, ġ, ch, i, l, ł, m, n, ng, o, ö, p, r, s, š, t, u, v, y, z, ż, ž.

Alphabet & Orthography
The Adwanic alphabet consists of 31 letters:

A C Ċ Č D Ð Ď E F G H I J K L M N O Ö P R Þ S Š Þ U V W Y Z Ż Ž Note: Þþ is collated right after Šš.

The letters Bb, Qq, and Xx do not exist in Adwan, neither in the alphabet or in loanwords. Instead, [b] tends to become [v] or [p], [kw] is written as cw, and [ks] is written as gs. Like the phoneme [b], [gz] does not exist in Adwan.

Diacritic and etc. notes:


 * Dots were used to affricate alveolar fricatives.


 * Háčeks were used over alveolar consonants to represent post-alveolar consonants.


 * 1) In digraphs representing post-alveolar consonants, ‹c› is used to represent post-alveolar fricatives, and ‹g› to represent post-alveolar affricates.
 * Accented vowels do not count as separate characters, for they do not represent new phonemes, therefore vowels with accents are not in the alphabet.
 * Digraphs are not represented in the alphabet.
 * In the thorn's name (þ, þor), the ‹n› was dropped due to nasals never coming after r, unless they belong to another syllable.

Latin Alphabet Extensions
Adwan employs 11 letters that are foreign to the basic Latin alphabet. These letters are considered letters on their own, rather than letters with diacritics.
 * ‹Ċ,ċ› represents the phoneme ‹ts›, as in the English word cats.
 * ‹Č,č› represents the phoneme ‹tʃ›, as in the English word chocolate.
 * ‹Ð,ð› represents the phoneme ‹ð›, as in the English word therefore. When word final, represents the same sound as þ, though when word final and has an apostraphe, it retains the voiced sound. Note, however, apostraphe's are not used in official writing.
 * ‹Ď,ď› represents the phoneme ‹dʒ›, as in the English word jam.
 * ‹Ġ,ġ› represents the phoneme ‹ɣ›, which doesn't exist in English. It is a ‹g›, but smoother and in the back of the throat, almost like a ‹g› version of ‹x›; it is represented as in the Greek word γάλα. This grapheme is actually written as g with a háček, but is written with a breve due to unicode difficulties.
 * ‹Ł,ł› represents the phoneme ‹ɬ›, which doesn't exist in English. It is almost like saying ‹š› and ‹l› together but quickly, or blowing while your tongue is curled back. It is represented as in the Welsh word lloyd.
 * ‹Ö,ö› represents the phoneme ‹ø›, which doesn't exist in English. The closest sound would be the ou in would, only a bit higher. It is represented as in the French word peu, or the Norwegian word søt.
 * ‹Š,š› represents the phoneme ‹ʃ›, as in the English word cash.
 * ‹Ż,ż› represents the phoneme ‹dz›, as in the English word cards. 
 * ‹Ž,ž› represents the phoneme ‹ʒ›, as in the English word vision, or as in the French word je.

Acute Accent; Stress & Vowel Change
Adwan adds acute accents (and double acute accents to all vowels with umlauts) to all vowels to add stress if the stress isn't on the penultimate syllable.
 * ‹Á,á› represents stress on the ‹a›.
 * ‹É,é› represents stress on the ‹e›.
 * ‹Í,í› represents stress on the ‹i›.
 * ‹Ó,ó› represents stress on the ‹o›.
 * ‹Ő,ő› represents stress on the ‹ö›.
 * ‹Ú,ú› represents stress on the ‹u›.
 * ‹Ý,ý› represents stress on the ‹y›.

Geminate Orthography
Adwan, for the most part, is quite a phonemic language, though it does carry its own writing rules. Mainly everything is written as it is pronounced, and everything is pronounced as it is written. Diphthongs even have special diacritics that show they're diphthongs, because vowel clusters are separately pronounced. One thing Adwan does have, however, is gemination.

Gemination in Adwan can be quite tricky, for just because a consonant is doubled, doesn't mean it should be geminated. In the Polish loanwoard Ďďovnyca, or earthworm, the two ‹ď›'s are pronounced.

Gemination is triggered by two things: double consonants, and an accute accent. It does not matter if pronunciation already falls on the vowel, an acute is added to the vowel before the double consonants to produce gemination. Thus, double consonants that are word initial are always pronounced.

Note: gemination occurs in the locative for the first declensions:
 * Afkra → Áffkrena / Áffkrenang
 * Šuska → Šússkena / Šússkenang
 * Arevyna → Arevýnnena / Arevýnnenang

Geminations in Monophthong/Diphthong Separators
Seldomly do separators have to geminate, but it's quite possible. However, geminations in separators do not exist, instead lenghthening the vowel by double, or even triple the actual length. The "h" in separators are doubled.

For example:

Cowhu /ko̯u.u/, "Flood", geminates in the Locative singular to Cówhhus, which is pronounced /ko̯uw:us/

Cwydhu, "Wales", geminates in the Locative singular to Cwýdhhus, which is pronounced either /kwɪ:us/ or /kwɪʔ:us/

Fortunately as it is, the need for monophthong and diphthong separators are a relatively literary feature, for most words that use them and have adjacent vowels are literary words (compare the three words for organization: scyskyma, organiseišön, and łowhogha).

Syntax & Morphology
Adwan is an inflecting language, where many words change their form depending on their function in a sentence. This may pose a problem for many English speakers, Chinese speakers, or other speakers of analytical languages, for analytical languages depend on word order to convey their meaning, as opposed to morphology.

Adwan, as an inflecting language, inflects verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and numbers depending on their function in a sentence, or their case (or person, mood, voice, tense and aspect, for verbs).

Word Order
Because of the inflections that go on in Adwan, word order is generally a lot freer than it would be if it didn't have all those inflections. Adwan generally follows an SVO word order, hough many word orders are feasible due to Adwan's extensive inflectional system. However, unlike many inflecting languages, word order does not establish mood in Adwan, but is merely used as a tool of avoiding epenthesis. Word order in Adwan is, for lack of a better word, shallow and moderately unimportant, though the use of SVO, SOV and VOS is all too commonly used and recommended.

Place Manner Time
Place manner and time order is not strict at all in Adwan, except for one rule: time must always go after the verb. The usual order in Adwan is time place manner, although quite literally, there is no restriction to order, as long as the time goes after the verb. When dealing with Place manner time, the verb always precedes the temporal phrase, therefore word order depends on the position of the temporal phrase.

Time Place Manner Time Manner Place Place Manner Time Place Time Manner Manner Time Place Manner Place Time Tarei (Ta + rei) -> I will go; mač --> tomorrow; šússkena (loc of šuska) --> (to, at) school; zuð --> with, via; swacgé (abl of swač) --> car.
 * I will go tomorrow to school by car.
 * Tarei mač šússkena zuð swacgé.
 * I will go tomorrow by car to school.
 * Tarei mač zuð swacgé šússkena.
 * To school by car I will go tomorrow.
 * Šússkena zuð swacgé tarei mač.
 * To school I will go tomorrow by car.
 * Šússkena tarei mač zuð swacgé.
 * By car I will go tomorrow to school.
 * Zuð swacgé tarei mač šússkena.
 * By car to school I will go tomorrow.
 * Zuð swacgé šússkena tarei mač.

Cases
Adwan has seven cases to which decline its nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numbers. They are the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, the dative, the ablative, the locative and the vocativ, and are always given in that specific order.

Prepositions
Prepositions in Adwan can be quite tricky, for not only are there a good number of them, but many of them are incredibly dependant on cases. A preposition can have up to three different meanings, some even more; the distinction between each meaning lies in the case used, however.

For example: the preposition After, or Dgengcwí, means After in the ablative, and behind in the locative. While a connection between the two can be made, there are still even more ambigious prepositions, such as the preposition for on, or ch, which refers to a general point in time in the dative, refers to a general idea in the ablative, and suggests an item locationally being on something in the locative.

Thus, it is vital to know which case goes with not only which prepositions, but with which prepositional meanings.

Prepositions and their Cases Table
Below is a table showing an overview of the Adwanic and English prepositions and the cases they belong to.

Nouns
Nouns in Adwan are categorized into one of three genders which are commonly found in other European languages. Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. However, unlike many languages, genders do not necessarily hold special endings, therefore, the gender of a noun must be memorized. It is, possible, however, to determine the gender of a noun by its declension paradigm. Nouns in Adwan are declined according to grammatical case, number, and gender. However, it must be noted that, in Adwanic nouns, numbers are on a steady collapse, leaving number to be highly dependant on adjectives and determiners for many classes.

Apart from genders, nouns are divided into other subclasses. These classes depend on their ending, i.e. Afkra would be declined differently than Pőž, even if they are both masculine.

The different classes of nouns are shown below, each class retaining its own declensional pattern. However, one thing must be noticed. Nouns in Adwan are distributed in a less arbitrary fashion, with nouns actually having some sort of connection to their gender. This does no prove true to all nouns, but it holds steady for the majority. Along with that, all living things are either masculine or feminine. Note, when verbs change into nouns, their class of verb determines the gender.
 * Masculine
 * 1) Smooth Nouns (c, č, ð, ď, f, ġ, ch, l, ł, n, s, š)
 * 2) Rough Nouns (ċ, d, g, p, m, r, t, v, z, ż, ž)
 * 3) Boxy Nouns (a, e)
 * Feminine
 * 1) Smooth Nouns (c, č, ð, ď, f, ġ, ch, l, ł, n, s, š)
 * 2) Rough Nouns (ċ, d, g, p, m, r, t, v, z, ż, ž)
 * 3) Round Nouns (o, u)
 * Neuter
 * 1) Textured (both Smooth and Rough) Nouns (c, ċ, č, d, ð, ď, f, g, ġ, ch, l, ł, m, n, p, r, s, š, t, v, z, ż, ž)
 * 2) Boxy Nouns (i, y)

Smooth Nouns
Nouns ending with a smooth consonant (c, č, ð, ď, f, ġ, ch, l, ł, n, s, š).

Rough Nouns
Nouns ending with a rough consonant (ċ, d, g, p, m, r, t, v, z, ż, ž).

Round Nouns
Nouns ending in a round vowel (a, e)

Smooth Nouns
Nouns ending with a smooth consonant (c, č, ð, ď, f, ġ, ch, l, ł, n, s, š).

Rough Nouns
Nouns ending with a rough consonant (ċ, d, g, p, m, r, t, v, z, ż, ž).

Boxy Nouns
Nouns ending in a boxy vowel (o, u)

Textured Nouns
Nouns ending with a smooth consonant and a rough consonant (c, ċ, č, d, ð, ď, f, g, ġ, ch, l, ł, m, n, p, r, s, š, t, v, z, ż, ž).

Boxy Nouns
Nounas ending with a boxy vowel (i, y) Note, nouns may go through certain phonetic changes. For example, two consecutive i's or e's are considered illegal in declensions, so if the last syllable has an ‹i› and the declension adds another syllable with an ‹i›, the ‹i› in the syllable before the new syllable changes to a ‹y›. For example, the accusative for textured neuter nouns adds a ‹í›; therefore, adding that to a word like piċ would change the ‹i› to a ‹y›, therefore leaving the noun to be pyċí.

With e's, the first e is just deleted, like in veder. The locative of the neuter textured nouns declensions adds ‹em›, so adding this to a noun that already has an ‹e› in the last syllable causes the ‹e› in the syllable that precedes the ending to drop, leaving veder in the locative to be vedrem, not vederem.

Note, however, that these changes only occur if an extra affix is being added. If a final vowel changes, nothing is omitted.

Adjectives
Adjectives in Adwan only have 3 declension classes, one declension per each gender. All adjectives must agree with the gender of the noun they're describing. Adjectives in Adwan have no specific ending without a specific gender. Since miwa is masculine, then big would be rora. However, if someone wanted to have a feminine noun such as cyrðu, or ocean, rora would have to change to roro to match the gender.

Masculine adjectives end in -a, Feminine adjectives end in -o, and Neuter adjectives end in -y.

Adjectival Articles
Adwan's nouns do not carry articles, and neither do adjectives... for the most part. Adjectival articles exist in Adwan for the purpose of treating an adjective like a noun, therefore, when no noun is needed, the adjectival article comes in before it and modifies it into a noun, whilst letting it keep its adjective declension. Adjectival Articles only come in one form, though it is not definite or indefinite, merely an oblique form.

Adjectival articles replace the use for the noun "ones" or "things" in most cases, so to say She ate the blue thing, one would simply say She ate the blue (Avo mozcysje yċ jeðy.). The neuter gender is generally used when the gender of the item is unknown.

Adjectival articles also replace the usage of the nouns "person", "man", "woman", "boy", "girl", or "child". For example, to say An old man eats, one could simply omit man and decline old to the masculine, therefore leaving the sentence to be An old eats (Að šöna mozcys.).

Along with the other usages provided, adjectival articles could allow speakers to omit objects if they were already specified before, and if each object had an adjective (if two objects have the same adjectives but different genders, then the same process could be applied, however, if they are of the same gender and have the same adjectives, this cannot work). If someone was to ask Did the big cat eat the little mouse? Cat and mouse, since they were already stated, and they have their own adjectives, big and little, then the objects could be omitted and the reply would be Yes, the big ate the little (Ö, að rora mozcysje aðe ina.) instead of Yes, the big cat ate the little mouse.

Affixes
Nouns and Adjectives in Adwan carry a number of derivational morpheme markers that add or change meaning. Like many affixes in other languages, they slightly add on to the meaning of a noun. For example, the affix -čna means in essence of, very much like the affix -ness in English. However, many affixes in English all go back to this same affix in Adwan. In the English word Brotherhood, the affix -hood has the same meaning as -ness; in Adwan, to say brotherhood, one would say brother, or povla (note, brother is an irregular noun that does not follow the same gender pattern as most nouns) and add on the affix, leaving it to be povlačna, or brotherness. Affixes are added on to the undeclined noun, for the noun is declined after the affix has been added on.'''

Below is a list of affixes -- mostly suffixes -- used to alter meaning in Adwan. Note: do not confuse derivational affixes with diminutives and augmentives.

Note, gemination does NOT occur with affixes. Double consonants are both pronounced. Adjective comparisons function by use of prefixes, which are also shown below.

Personal Pronouns
Because of the use of genitives, posessive adjectives don't exist in Adwan.

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns in Adwan, like pronouns, are irregularly declined. They decline for case only and not for gender or number, and follow a rather regular pattern (though the declensions in themselves are quite irregular as they don't follow the regular patterns).

Adwan has one relative pronoun, and its declination works something like the French relative pronouns of qui and que, and Latin's declension, where it declines according to its part of speech function rather than the noun its connecting or relating to. The relative pronoun in Adwan is Sað, and it has all the functions of English's relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, etc.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns pose questions while taking form of what would be nouns. However, most words that do pose questions are actually reversed adverbs, where rather than going after the verb, the precede the verb. Adwan's structure does not depend wholly on this, however, as simply using intonation is enough to pose a question.

Adwan has rather odd interrogative pronouns, that, although not found in English typically, can be found in other languages. However, like other Indo-European languages, what is identical to the relative that in Adwan.

All Adwanic interrogative pronouns end in að and follow the same declension pattern as sað. Note, adverbial forms of each interrogative pronoun are listed next to each pronoun.

How: Łað/Łuðyr

How many: Gwað/Gwacgy

What: Sað/Scy

What kind: Flað/Velá

Where: Chað/Doðyr

When: Vað/Feðyr

Who: Tað/Sciðyr

Why: Dgað/Scaðyr

Demonstratives
Demonstratives, words such as this, that, those, these, etc. Adwan differentiates between two distances, near me (zuð zcam) and far from me (sað zcam), or more properly known as proximal and distal.
 * 1) Proximal demonstratives mark objects that are near to the speaker. The equivalent to this in English is the demonstrative this and these.
 * 2) Distal demonstratives mark objects that are far from both the speaker and the addressee. English has the demonstratives that and those, and archaically had yon and yonder, but those aren't used as much anymore.

Demonstratives in Adwan are declined for number, gender and case, although the declensions they go through are, typically, irregular and don't follow the rules of typical declensions.

Proximal: Þa/Þo/Þid - This
Þa, the proximal demonstrative in Adwan, marks objects that are close to the speaker. It is the equivalent to this and these in English.

Distal: Sa/So/Sy - That
Sa, the distal demonstrative in Adwan, marks objects that are far from both speaker and addressee. It is the equivalent to that and those in English.

Numbers
Numbers in Adwan are quite simple and consistent. They utilize an easy set of affixes that change with each place. Adwan only provides numbers from 0-9, with the rest using affixes to change numbers. Adwan declines all its numbers for gender, though only 1-9 is shown.

Verbs
While overall, Adwan is a synthetic language, its conjugation of verbs are better described as agglutinative. Adwan does not have any auxilliary verbs, modal verbs, or any particles of any kind; instead, prefixes and suffixes are used to change up a verb's meaning.

Compare between English, which is quite analytical:


 * I could have eaten a castle!

And Adwan, which is purely agglutinative/synthetic:


 * Ja casyle pömozcasedgyða!

The word pömozcasedgyða literally means I could have eaten. The prefix pö changes the modality of a verb, which, with the conditional, is akin to the English could; mozcas is a conjugated form of mozcan, or "to eat"; -edg is an affix that expresses the past tense and the perfect aspect, and -yða expresses the conditional voice. Indeed, Adwanic verbs can reach variably long lengths, such as the pedantic Łoumhoghan, or to organize. With Adwanic prefixes and affixes, I could have organized myself would literally be expressed in one word, pöłoumhoghasedgyðaġu (note the pronunciation for a laugh or two, [pø.ɬo̯u.o̯i.a.se.dʒɪ.'ða.ɣu]) Adwan's affixes are not easy to confuse once they're learned, and eventually, even the longest of verbs will make sense to someone who can atleast spot affixes that indicate mood, voice, and tense/aspect.

Conjugation
As stated above, Adwanic verbs conjugate to everything. It is literally uncommon to see an infinitive. Some arguments are even made that with some dialects, the infinitive has already crashed, instead verbs being given in the first person, along with the use of the subjunctive, such as I want that I go to a castle rather than I want to go to a castle, etc. However, this is not completely true, for irregular verbs have synthetic conjugations rather than agglutinative ones, and in turn, manage to produce the infinitives more often.

Verbs conjugate to a number of things. In Adwan, verbs conjugate to three persons (first, second and third), for both singular and plural (I, you, it versus We, you all, and they, etc). However, the synthetic conjugation ends there for Adwanic verbs, for everything else is made by attaching affixes to the main verb. Adwanic verbs don't make a distinction between tense and aspect, instead having merged the two (for example, you'll find imperfective present, -er, while imperfective past is -eżi, etc). Adwanic verbs also agglutinate for mood (indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative), voice (active, passive and middle) and polarity (affirmative and negative). Shown below is the order of which affixes should go. While word order in Adwan is generally free, affix order definitely isn't. Note, "BASE VERB" simply means to the verb without it's ending (-an, -en, etc),


 * [MODAL PREFIX] - [BASE VERB] - [PERSON CONJUGATION] - [TENSE/ASPECT] - [MOOD] - [VOICE] - [POLARITY]

An excellent example is the verb phrase I could not have organized myself, which, in Adwan, is expressed in one word:


 * Pöłoumhoghastuðaġuta

Broken down:


 * [pö] - [łoumhogh] - [as] - [tu] - [ða] - [ġu] - [ta]

Also, note that however long the word be, whether it be as long as dwavlaċtuðaġuta (I should not have seen myself) or as the verb above, stress is ALWAYS on the penultimate syllable UNLESS shown otherwise by the use of an acute accent (or a double acute -- ő --, if referring to a stress ö). As you read below, you will find the suffixes will be given to you in order from which they're attached, and then prefixes will be given.

V3
Adwan experiences a phenomenon with verbs; a phenomenon very much like the Germanic V2 word order. The V3 order is a special ordering of verbs when a noun in the accusative is present. In a V3 word order, the conjugated verb is always in the third lexical position, with the direct object right before it, essentially creating an SOV word order, and infinitives typically going to the end of the sentence, or following the conjugated verb. The only exception to the noun in the accusative preceding the verb is when a genitive, or genitives, need to be used, in which the subject is placed after the verb, essentially creating an OVS word order. NOTE, while SOV and VOS occur in V3, indirect objects succeed the verb. Note, the V3 word order is very much one of the reasons why infinitives are less than commonly used.

Because an accusative has to activate this, not all verbs go through the V3 order, though it's still common rule to use the V3 order. While verbs won't be rendered unintelligable, it will come off as sloppy. Lack of V3 word order is always seen in intransitive verbs, and in fact is still in use, along with the imperfect present as an indicator for intransitive verbs.

Example of regular word order:

She jumps fence.
 * She jumped over the fence.
 * 1) Uvo rompylje łoidogho.
 * Because the word order of this phrase is regular, one knows that rompyn is intransitive, and therefore, with the help of declensions, one doesn't need to use a preposition and can automatically guess the relation between the verb and the direct object. This is not always true, though for the most part, with common verbs, it is.

She sleeps bed of-her.
 * She slept in her bed.
 * 1) Uvo zaðasje restiċ ol.
 * Like the previous phrase, this verb does not need the preposition ví to tell the reader that she slept in a bed, for the word order shows the relation between the verb and the object.

Typically, morphology can also show the relationship between verbs and objects, commonly through the use of prepositions, but common colloquial and educated speech lowers the need for prepositions by following the V3 word order.

Example of phrases in V3 word order.

They apples eat. Apples of-me ate she!
 * They eat apples.
 * 1)  Övy afkrung  mozcidhys .
 * She ate my apples!
 * 1)  Afkrung za  mozcysje  uvo !
 * Shown here is an OVS order, thanks to the use of a Genitive.

That they eat apples in countries foreign like they. They apples like in countries foreign to eat.
 * They like to eat apples in foreign countries.
 * 1)  Saż övi  mozcídhysesċ  afkrung  ví nasjóúnnenang fiðeż  þauridhys  öving .
 * 1)  Öving afkrung  þauridhys  ví nasjóúnnenang fiðeż  mozcan .
 * Shown above are two examples of V3 word orders, using different verb forms to express the same meaning. The first sentence, while longer, is more commonly used because it follows two establish word order rules: both V3 and the relative clause rule. The more grammatically correct it becomes, the more complicated, but basically when more than 1 conjugated verb exist, they start piling after every three, therefore every other third lexical item in the sentence must be a conjugated verb (that's the third, sixth, ninth, twelth, etc. lexical unit). Note, the conjugated verb has to be the third lexical item, not third word. In the first sentence, after the 3rd item, the conjugated verb, ...afkrung vi nasjóúnnenang fiðeż comes before þauridhys. "...ví nsjóúnnenang fiðeż" count as one grammatical item, for prepositional phrases count as one lexical unit. Prepositions, adverbs and adjectives do not count as separate lexical units, but instead are attached to whatever they modify, in this case, the indirect object nasjóúnnenang. Second note: lexical items have been underlined accordingly.


 * In the second phrase, the infinitive is used. While much simpler in theory, the fact that the infinitive tends to go to the end may confuse a number of people.

While personal pronouns are not generally used, they are much more commonly used in the V3 order, usually to balance out the lexical numbers.

Verb Class
Adwan has 6 verb classes, or conjugations. Every conjugation ending is different and distinct from the other, though many of them follow consisten patterns (especially in the plural). Typically, each verb class in Adwan is referred to as a conjugation, though it must be noted that each conjugation can also be classified under a certain gender. Indeed, verbs have predetermined genders, which can be found by looking at their conjugation ending.

All verbs in Adwan end in -n. A verb's gender and class can easily be predicted through its ending and the preceding vowel (this excludes irregular verbs). Verbs in Adwan are typically also classified by gender, due to the fact that each Verb can become a noun by dropping the -n in the verb's infinitive. Typically, the dropping of this -n places a verb in a certain gender. For example, the verb Farðan, which means "to exit", would be classified as a masculine verb, for the noun version, Farða, which means "exit", would be placed in the masculine. Typically, a verb's gender does not affect its conjugation, for each gender has two conjugations. Below are all six conjugation endings for verbs in Adwan. Conjugations are ordered not alphabetically, but according to their gender. Below is a classification of a verb's ending and its gender.
 * -an
 * -en
 * -on
 * -un
 * -yn
 * -in
 * Masculine
 * -an
 * -en
 * Feminine
 * -on
 * -un
 * Neuter
 * -yn

If you can see, dropping the -n from a verb places it into either a Boxy or a Round conjugation for a specific gender. Below you will see tables with each verb ending's respective conjugation.
 * -in

Note, the endings to verb conjugations vary only in their consonants. For example, I eat and we eat have the same consonant ending, ja mozcas and nau mozcaus, because they are in the same class, while verbs in other classes have different consonants, such as to know; I know and we know, ja þaulaš and nau þaulauš, have the same vowels as to eat, but different endings.

Note: Verb conjugations shown below only show the 3rd person neuter pronoun to conserve space.

-AN Verbs
Verbs ending in -an are the most common of them all. These are masculine with nouns and have a characteristic ‹s› as its verb classifier.

-EN Verbs
Verbs ending in -en are also quite common. They are characterized by the consonant ‹ċ›.

-ON Verbs
Verbs ending in -on are characterized by the consonant ‹š›

-UN Verbs
Verbs ending in -un are characterized by the consonant ‹č›

-YN Verbs
Verbs ending in -yn are characterized by the consonant ‹l›

-IN Verbs
Verbs ending in -in are characterized by the consonant ‹r›

Tense & Aspect
Tense and Aspect come off as merged in Adwan, for there is no separate affix for each tense and each aspect, but rather, the combination of Tense and Aspect produce one affix (past perfective has the affix -je-, while the past imperfective has the affix -eży-).

Adwan is a language rich with tense and aspect. There are three tenses (past, present and future), and three aspects (perfective, perfect, and imperfective). Tense alone, however, is not enough to express what is going with the actions, therefore, Aspects are employed (and merged with tenses) to change the aspect of the verb. Compare ate with had eaten, etc. Below is a table with the respective affixes for each combination. Note, consonants may morph depending on the next vowel, i.e. ď becoming dg before a boxy vowel. NOTE: -Ø- means no affix is added.

Affixing
Below, prefixes will be given, all with vowels in parenthesis. Below is a table with all affix combinations that govern when to use the epenthetic vowels or not.

Mood
Verbs in Adwan conjugate to mood, apart from aspect, tense and person. The conjugation of moods themselves is not hard, but rather knowing when to use them. Adwan has four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the conditional. To see how to negate a verb, look at Polarity. Like Tense/Aspect, Mood in Adwan is expressed by the use of affixes. Interestingly enough, the affix used to indicate mood on a verb changes on whether the subject of the noun is singular or plural. Below is a table with the respective affixes for moods, along with examples in both English and Adwan. Vowels in parenthesis are only added if the previous affix ends in a consonant. Notes: On the conditional, the auxilliary verb in English "could" and "can" works as a prefix to verbs, "pöž(i)". Can is inferred when the verb is in the indicative, or the imperative, while could is inferred when the verb is in the subjunctive. Also notice that the mood affixes have to agree with number of the subject.

Voice
Voice is an important part to Adwan's verbs, for each voice carries a great amount of information depending on its usage. Adwanic verbs are able to be conjugated to three different voices; the Active, the Passive, and the Middle. Like other grammatical functions in a verb, Voice is distinguished by the use of affixes. With that said, the affix used depends on the number of the subject. Below is a table with the rightful affix needed to express the voice, along with a translation in English and Adwan.

Polarity
Polarity in Adwan describes whether the verb is negative or not. Adwan has two different polarities: negative and affirmative.

Negative negates the noun. This is seen in English by the usage of do not, or don't. In archaic English, the negative particle not is placed after the verb, too.

Affirmative is simply the regular noun, though English does add do to the verb. Therefore, I eat is in the Affirmative, and I don't eat in the Negative.

Unlike other parts to a verb, polarity is expressed in suffixes, therefore polarity affixes must ALWAYS go to the end of a verb. In addition, verbs with the Affirmative polarity don't require a polarity aspect; verbs such as I eat, I watch, I go to..., etc, don't require polarity unless negating it.

Modality
Modality in Adwan is expressed by the use of prefixes in Adwan, rather than by the use of modal or auxilliary verbs. While a single affix is given for certain types of modalities -- which will be reffered to in English for ease -- the use of each affix can change with the differentiation of each verb mood.

Should/Shall
The technical use of should and shall in Adwan is expressed by the verb prefix dwa, or dwað, depending if the verb begins with a vowel or not.

When a verb is in the indicative, the modality from dwa is equivalent to that of should, however, when in the imperative, the modality changes to that of shall, and although these are merely tense changes in English, these changes are merely additions to voice.
 * Dwaþryš ví tyrtai povlačni -- they should act in a spirit of brotherhood.
 * Dwaþryscity ví tyrtai povlačni -- they shall act in a spirit of brotherhood.

Can/Could/Might
The use of can and could also depends on the mood of the verb. The prefix pö is attached to the verb, unless the verb starts with a vowel, then pöž is used instead.

When a verb is in the indicative, imperative, and the subjunctive, the prefix is equivalent to that of can, and when in the subjunctive, it is to that of could.

One phenomenon is that can can be used with the subjunctive, which, although not uncommon, is unheard of in English using the modal verbs, instead then using to be able to. It literally says I-want that-acc can-you-eat-subjunctive, or I want that able you eat.
 * I want that you be able to eat --> Łoraċ saż pömozcusesċ.

In the Imperative and in the Indicative, pö also refers to can. However, in the Imperative, the meaning is a little different.
 * Pömozcus? --> Can you eat?
 * Pömozcusoty! --> You can eat!

The imperative with pö poses a command with a form a formality. Like in English where one might say You may all eat now, rather than saying Eat now!, the imperative with pö poses the same form of formality.

In the conditional, pö changes from can to could. Pö + the conditional relies heavily on aspect and tense, unlike pö + indicative/subjunctive/imperative.
 * Pömozcusyða --> You could eat.
 * Pömozcusedgyða --> You could have eaten.

Note, the future conditional + pö forms might, rather than ''could. ''

Infinitive
The infinitive marks an uninflected verb. Infinitives are always given in dictionaries, and in Adwan, they end in -an, -en, and -on. Infinitives are much less common in Adwan than they are in many language, mainly due to lack of usage of personal pronouns and usage of compact, agglutinative affixes to express verb functions.

For example: We should eat, "eat" is in the inifnitive in English, Spanish, and even French. However, in Adwan, the verb is conjugated with the modality and person, leaving we should eat to be dwamozcus. Another form of the infinitive seen in many language is the Supine, which is discussed below.
 * Debemos comer.
 * Nous devrions manger.

Supine
The supine in Adwan is distinct from the Supine in many languages, just in the fact that it doesn't utilize the infinitive. In Adwan, the supine is formed by adding the prefix Dgy if the verb starts with a consonant, and Dgyk if it starts with a vowel.

The supine is the verbal form used in a noun phrase. In English, it is formed by using the particle "to" which forms the inifnitive.

In the phrase I want to go home to sleep, sleep is in the supine. The supine forms a verb that acts as the cause for the previous verb.

Below, the supine is bolded, to help get a stronger understanding of the supine. Spanish puts the preposition a or para, while French puts pour before the infinitive verbs.
 * I walk outside to run.
 * I go to school to learn.
 * I sleep to rest.

Essentially, the supine is like saying So i can..., though it is not limited to person. Verbs in the supine are still conjugated for person, which indicates the person in the so i can... translation.

Gerund
In Adwan, the use of a gerund is actually quite rare, only used in certain subordinate clauses and such. The typical gerund is simply formed by using the prefix Na, and Nan if the verb starts with a noun. Usually, the gerundive is a noun-like form of the verb, where the actual activity of doing the verb is treated like a noun.

Note: with a gerundive, the verb is NOT to be conjugated.

English makes extensive use of the gerund which are incorrect in Adwan.
 * I am swimming --> Það naščoran is wrong.


 * 1) Verbs are completely independant. There is no such thing as a helping verb, or an auxilliary verb in Adwan.

However, there are some times when the Gerundive in English and Adwan are used in the same format.
 * 1) Technically, this phrase says that you are swimming, in the manner that the activity of swimming consists of you, rather than you being in the process of swimming. To use verbs in this aspect, the imperfective is used. Apart from the general idea being incorrect, verbs in the gerunds also have to be declined (note, all verbs in the gerund follow the fourth declension, for they all end in -n). 
 * After swimming, I went home. --> Dgeňcwy naščoranak, taje vjóšškena za.
 * 1) Technically, says "After swimming, I went to my house.
 * 2) The usage of this phrase is correct, for it treats the verb like a noun.

Irregular Verbs
To see the irregular verbs in Adwan, along with conjugations, view the Irregular Verbs article.

Adverbs
Adverbs in Adwan are not declined. They have no specific ending, although many of them may share suffixes which are used to use adjectives as adverbs.

However, one thing that does restrict adverbs is their placement. While nouns and adjectives don't have specific placement rules, adverbs must ALWAYS follow the part of speech they describe, which is, in most cases, the verb.

For example:
 * She ate a very big meal --> She ate a big very meal.
 * She gracefully fell from her bicycle --> She fell gracefully from her bicycle.

Tag Question Particle
A trait shared by many languages, Adwan also features the use of an interrogative particle. Not exactly asking where, when, or why, the interrogative particle acts much like the French particle est-ce, the Polish czy, and the English particle do; it poses a yes or no question.

The particle, Je, is usually introduced at the beggining or at the end of the question. Traditionally, it's quite common the the subject pronoun to also be added for emphasis and to even out the tag question particle, however, this only happens if the particle is introduced at the beggining of the sentence. However, the particle indeed can be negated. Rather than negating the verb, Adwan negates the particle to pose a question with a predisposed doubt.
 * Łoruċ pyċu, je? = Do you want pizza?
 * Je ġu þaùrus łachav za? = Do you like my music?

Note the use of posessive adjectives rather than genitive personal pronouns. Usually, if a tag question particle is used, a sense of informality is established, which means that posessive adjectives are more accepted than the slightly formal genitive pronouns.
 * Jeta ġu þaùrus afkruň neìċynuň za? = Do you not like my apples and oranges?

Conjunctions
Conjunctions in Adwan are famous for being odd, especially the Coordinating Conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions are quite odd, as they work in a rather agglutinative form. Coordinating conjunctions have two forms: one form for clauses, and one form for items. A coordinating conjunction used with clauses is usually a conjunction that connects two sentences together; however, the item conjunctions are simply conjunctions used for items as they are listed or used in such manner.

While coordinating conjunctions working with clauses use regular, traditional conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions working with items use proclitics, which are morphemes that function like prefixes, but have their own grammatical meaning (comparable to that of -que in Latin). Note: the Clause form of the coordinating conjunction "so" is identical to the subordinating conjunction for "so that".

Phrasing
Although grammar is crucial to Adwan, there is still the great question of how to put things together. Below is a quick guide on telling time, telling the weather, etc, etc.

Weather
In many languages, when describing the weather, they simply use the third person singular, and if they are not pro-dropping, they use dummy pronouns. The rules in Adwan are slightly different. In English and French, the dummy pronoun it and il are used to indicate an indefinite noun, usually the weather in context. However, Adwan is slightly different. Rather than not specifying anything at all, Adwan explicitly states what's doing what, therefore to express that it's raining outside, something must take up the subject. In Adwan, everything is referred to using "day" in the general mood, therefore It rains would be The day rains. NOTE: when referring to weather-verbs, the present imperfect is never used, as weather-verbs are never transitive verbs.

The usage of this extend to places, too:
 * It is raining in Rome
 * Žol v Rómmena ďovys, which literally says Day in Rome is raining.

Existential Clauses
The usage of the pronoun "there" and "y" in English and French are the subjects for existential clauses in those languages. Along with the verb "to be" and "to have", an existential clause is formed, looking something like there is a dog in my house, or il y a un chien chez moi. However, Adwan exist is much more specific in the placing of the existential object. The verb Łyðon, or "to Exist" is used, followed by the place. General statements with specified location uses the noun poùl, or, which roughly -- but not directly -- translates to "else-where/some-where". Note, it is incredibly common, however, to not only drop poùl, but the replaced "exist" with "to be". Because Adwan's declension rules lead predicates to be in the accusative, however, the most common -- and still grammatically correct -- form of expressing existential clauses is simply to have the subject just be.
 * There is a dog in front of my house.
 * Pöž łyðyser jeg šússkena za, which literally says Dog is existing before my house.
 * There are dogs and cats!
 * Poulá, pözcet neimiwang łyðydhiš!, which literally says (At) Elsewhere, dogs and cats exist.
 * There are dogs and cats!
 * Pözcet neimiwang þyla! literally translates to Dogs and cats are!