Englisc

Overview

=Setting= Englisc is a language based on Old Englisc, carried forward to today. There is a bit of German in it, and some modern English, but it maintains its core language, unlike our language. This language is basically Old English as if it evolved like Modern German.

=Basic Grammar= Here is a basic grammar of Englisc:

Alphabet

 * Capital:  A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
 * Lowercase: a, æ, b, c, d, ð, e, f, g, ȝ, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, œ, p, q, r, s, t, þ, u, v, w, x, y, z
 * Runic:    ᚪ,  ᚫ, ᛒ, ᚳ, ᛞ, ᚧ, ᛖ, ᚠ,  ᚸ, ᚷ, ᚻ, ᛁ,  ᛄ, ᛣ, ᛚ, ᛗ,  ᚾ, ᚩ, ᛟ, ᛈ, ᛢ, ᚱ,  ᛋ, ᛏ, ᚦ,  ᚢ, ᚡ, ᚹ, ᛉ, ᚣ, ᛎ; additionally: ᛥ (st), ᛝ (ng), ᛡ (ia, io), ᛠ (ea), ᛤ (kk)

The alphabet can also be written with runic characters, and when done in this form, can be written backwards, forwards, and vertically up or down, depending on the need of the writer. The Runic letters are arranged alphabetically in their own arrangement, different from Latin form. The Z rune is simply an upside-down T, V is simply a dotted-F rune. The rune ᛢ stands for QU and KW in any word.

Runic alphabetical order: f u þ a r c; ȝ w h n i j; eo p x s t b; e m l ng œ d; a æ y ea ia k; kk kw st ð v z;

Pronunciation
The letters b, d, g, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, x sound like modern English. The Z sounds like 'ts' as in cats in any unstressed syllable, and dz in a stressed syllable. The letter C is always like ch in church. The letter yogh Ȝ is a y-sound like yes in all positions. In foreign loanwords, the letter J indicates the same sound. The letters Þ and Ð sound like think and that, respectively. H at the beginning of a word is like hard; at the end of a word (after a/o/u) like Scottish loch and after front vowels (æ/e/i/œ/y) like German ich. The letter Q is always in the combination qu and is only used in foreign words; the native versions is spelled as kw. The letter S is pronounced like sing in all cases except between vowels, when it sounds like zulu. The letter w is always like wire, except in the combination wl or wr when it can sound like victor.

A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
 * A
 * Æ
 * E
 * I - bit/See
 * O - fon/Boot
 * Œ - ö
 * U - food/...
 * Y - ü
 * EI - buy
 * IE - fee
 * EA - may
 * IO - like yo

Nouns
Nouns have three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (single, plural), and four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative), which are marked with case endings and the use of a definite article.

Masculine
Masculine nouns are nouns which use the article þe and can also describe male beings (Doktor, Baker, Maker, etc.), or words ending in -had. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.


 * N: -      -e
 * G: -(e)s  -e
 * D: -(e)   -en
 * A: -      -e


 * As an example, the word Stan, stone in the singular: Stan, Stanes, Stan, Stan; plural: Stane, Stane, Stanen, Stane

Neuter
Neuter nouns are nouns which use the article þat and can also describe things and children (Cild, Barn, etc.), or words ending in -in, -el, -incel. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.


 * N: -      -e
 * G: -(e)s  -e
 * D: -(e)   -en
 * A: -      -e


 * As an example, the word Barn, child, baby in the singular: Barn, Barnes, Barn, Barn; plural: Barne, Barne, Barnen, Barne

Feminine
Feminine nouns are nouns which use the article þie and can also describe female beings (Doktorin, Bakestre, Makestre, etc.), or words ending in -ung. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.


 * N: -      -e/n
 * G: -      -e/n
 * D: -      -en
 * A: -      -e/n


 * As an example, the word Run, secret in the singular: Run; plural: Rune, Rune, Rune, Rune.
 * Feminine nouns that end in an -e in the singular will have en plurals.

Pronouns
Pronouns operate like any other language, replacing the nouns already mentioned and indicating the speaker, and one to whom you speak.

Singular

 * First person: I, my, me: ic, mein, miȝ, mic
 * Second Person: thou, thy, thee: þu, þein, þiȝ, þic
 * Third Person: he, his, him: hie, sein, him, hin
 * She: scie, her, her, scie/sco
 * It: it, sein, him, it

Dual Pronouns

 * First person: we two, our two, us two: wit, unker, unk, unkit
 * Second person: ye two, your two, you two: ȝit, inker, ink, inkit

Plural

 * First person: we, our, us: wiȝ, user, us, usic
 * Second person: ye, your, you: ȝiȝ, ȝuer, ȝu, ȝuic (dialect variant: ȝoer, ȝo, ȝoic)
 * Third person: they, their, them: hje, hjer, hjem

Indefinite Pronouns
These pronouns indicate someone unknown or unnamed to the speaker or person spoken to. The prefix a- adds the meaning any, æj-
 * anyone, anything: ahwa, ahwat
 * each/everyone, each/everything (individually): æȝhwa, æȝhwat
 * each/every one, each/every thing (as a group, together): gehwa, gehwat
 * no one, nothing: nehwa, nehwat
 * someone, something: nathwa, nathwat

Indefinite Pronouns with Adjective Endings
These words function like pronouns, but have adjective endings
 * both, either, each: gehwæðer
 * each, every, any: gehwilc
 * someone, something: ahwæðer

Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns are question words, asking information from someone
 * who, what: hwa, hwat
 * which of two: hwæðer
 * which of many: hwilc

Definite Article
The definite article declines, or changes form, based on the gender of the noun it describes. The article can be masculine, feminine, neuter, or plural. It has cases to agree with the nouns it describes. This word translates the English 'the, that.'


 * Gender:    Masc     Neut    Fem     Plural
 * Nom:        þe       þat    þie       þie
 * Gen:        þes      þes    þer       þer
 * Dat:        þem      þem    þer       þen
 * Acc:        þen      þat    þie       þie

Indefinite Article
This word translates the English 'a, an.' An adjective following this is in the weak form.


 * Gender:    Masc     Neut    Fem     Plural
 * Nom:       an        an     ane       nane
 * Gen:       anes      anes   aner      naner
 * Dat:       anem      anem   aner      nanen
 * Acc:       anen      an     ane       nane

There is no plural form for 'a, an' but if it means 'single, only' then it can have a plural form, as in 'the only women here' (þie anen Weife hier). If you intend to mean 'one' instead of 'a, an' then you write a double-a, as in 'aan, aanes' et al.

This / These
This word translates the English 'this, these.' An adjective following this is in the weak form. In a stressed form, meaning 'this one here directly in front of me' or 'this one we have been discussing just now' you write 'þies, þiesses' et al.


 * Gender:    Masc     Neut      Fem     Plural
 * Nom:       þis       þis      þisse       þisse
 * Gen:       þisses     þisses   þisser      þisser
 * Dat:       þissem     þissem   þisser      þissen
 * Acc:       þissen     þis      þisse       þisse

Strong Endings
Adjectives add endings to tell their function in a sentence. When standing before a noun, they add strong endings.
 * Singular (nom, gen, dat, acc):
 * Masculine: -, -es, -em, -en
 * Neuter:   -, -es, -em, -
 * Feminine: -e, -er, -er, -e
 * Plural (all genders): -e, -er, -en, -e
 * Exanmple: Stan (m), great Stan (big stone), ȝung Cild (young child), ȝunges Mæȝdens (of a young girl), aldem Mann (to an old person (male or female)), kalde Dage (cold days)

Weak Endings
Weak endings occur after an article having an ending is placed before a noun. This is before the words þe, þie, þat, mein, þein (et al), an, þis.
 * Singular (nom, gen, dat, acc):
 * Masculine: -e, -en, -en, -en
 * Neuter:   -e, -en, -en, -e
 * Feminine: -e, -en, -en, -e
 * Plural (all genders): -en, -en, -en, -en
 * Example: þe Stan -> þe groene Stan; þat Mæȝden -> þat ȝunge Mægden; þie Frowe -> mid þer wlitigen Frowe

Comparison
For all adjectives, comparison is made adding the suffixes -er and -est. For example:
 * gemæn, gemæner, gemænst- (common, commoner, commonest)
 * dier, dierer, dierst- (dear, dearer, dearest)

Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms, with umlaut. They are all single-syllable, and quite common:
 * ald, ælder, ældest (old)
 * brad, bræder, brædest (broad)
 * ferr, fierrer, fierrst (far)
 * great, grieter, grietst (great, big)
 * ȝung, ȝynger, ȝyngst (young)
 * heah, hieher, hiehst (high)
 * lang, længer, længst (long)
 * scort, scœrter, scœrtst (short)
 * strang, strænger, strængst (strongest)

And a small number of adjectives have a completely different comparative/superlative form than the positive:
 * god, better, betst (good, better, best)
 * lytel, læsse, læst (little, less, least)
 * micel, mære, mæst ((great, much), more, most)
 * yfel, wiers, wierst (evil, worse, worst)

Verbs
Verbs are those words describing an action or a state of being. Verbs are either strong or weak, like nouns and adjectives. Strong verbs change their vowel to indicate tense, while weak verbs add a dental suffix (-de, -te) to indicate tense. All verbs conjugate for person, singular/plural, and tense (past/present).

Weak Verbs
A weak verb has the following endings in the present tense, using maken to make, do as an example:
 * ic make (I make, I do make, I am making)
 * þu makst (thou makest, thou dost make, thou art making)
 * he/scie/it makþ (he/she/it makes, does make, is making)
 * wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje makeþ (we/ye/they make, do make, are making)

So, the endings for weak and strong verbs are:
 * ic -e
 * þu -(e)st
 * he -(e)þ
 * wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje -eþ

Just add the endings to the stem (maken is the stem mak- and the infinitive ending -en)

If the verb ends in a d/t, or some consonant cluster that makes it difficult to hear the ending, you keep the e in the 2nd and 3rd person. The plural ending is the same for all persons.

Past tense of weak verbs
Weak verbs form the past tense with either -de or -te. If the word ends in a voiceless consonant, such as k, p, s/z, then it will add -te, otherwise, -de. If the verb ends in some kind of consonant cluster that makes the ending hard to hear, add e between the verb stem and the ending (gelanden -> gelandede).

The following illustrate the past tense endings:
 * ic makte;  ic  gelandede
 * þu maktest; þu gelandedest
 * he makte;  he  gelandede
 * wiȝ makten; wiȝ gelandeden
 * ȝiȝ makten; ȝiȝ gelandeden
 * hje makten; hje gelandeden

Strong Verbs
Strong verbs are those verbs that change the vowel in the stem to indicate the tense, such as 'write, wrote, written' in modern English. It works essentially the same way in Niw Englisc, just that there are a few more strong verbs, and you can place them into 7 broad types to make it easier to predict their forms. Basically, a strong verb will look like this in the present:


 * ic fare, þu færst, he færþ; wiȝ, ȝiȝ, hje fareþ

And the past:
 * ic for, þu forst, he for; wiȝ, ȝiȝ, hje foren.

Like all verbs, the plural is the same ending for all three persons. The ic and he forms are the same, however, in the past tense.

Type 1 -ei/a/i
The first type of strong verb has a ei vowel in the stem. Verbs like wreiten, streifen, sleiden, and sweifen are all type 1 verbs, and are declined the same way:

Streifen - to strive
 * ic streife, þu streifst, he streifþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje streifeþ

In the past tense:
 * ic straf, þu strafst, he straf; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje strafen

And in the perfect tense with haben to have:
 * ic habe gestriffen, etc.

Please note here that there is a slight change in the stem, doubling the consonant. This is merely to indicate the vowel preceding is short, but it does make some consonants voiceless that would otherwise be voiced (f sound instead of v sound, þ instead of ð, etc.)

More type 1 verbs to practice: beiden - to await ætweiten - to blame, reproach akweinen - to dwindle away behleiden - to cover beleifen - to remain (wesen) besceiten - to befoul beiten - to bite gereisen - to befit gneiden - to rub together (ic nabe tweȝn Stykke to gneiden) meiðen - to avoid neipen - to grow dark sneiken - to crawl steigen - to ascend streifen - to strive (a French loan word) sweifen - to sweep

Special note on þ/ð - the letter thorn (þ) is the voiceless version of eth (ð), and as such, will alternate with it in certain forms of a verb or other word, depending on how it's used in a sentence. Take here the example of leiðen - to go, sail, travel:


 * Present: ic leiðe, þu leiðest/leiþst, he leiðeþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje leiðeþ
 * Past:   ic laþ,   þu laðest/laþst,   he laþ;    wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje laðen
 * Perfect: ic em geliþþen, þu ert geliþþen

Irregular Verbs
These verbs are very irregular and have such a high frequency, that it's better just to memorize them.

Gan - to go

 * Present: ic ga, þu gæst, he gæþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje gaþ
 * Past:   ic geng, þu gengst, he geng; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje gengen
 * Perfect: ic em gegan...

Haben - to have

 * Present: ic habe, þu hafst, he hafþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje habeþ
 * Past:   ic hafde, þu hafdest, he hafde; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje hafden
 * Perfect: ic habe gehafd...

Hycgen - to think
In this verb, meaning to think about something for a time, think over, the present is pronounced ich hü-jeh, thu hüchst, etc. It uses an ich-laut in the 2nd and 3rd persons. In the past tense, this g sounds like Scottish loch
 * Present: ic hycge, þu hyȝst, he hyȝþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje hycgeþ
 * Past:   ic hogde, þu hogdest, he hogde; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje hogden
 * Perfect: ic habe gehogd...

Libben - to live
This refers to the action of living. The verb to reside in a place is wunen.
 * Present: ic libbe, þu lifst, he lifþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje libbeþ
 * Past:   ic lifde, þu lifdest, he lifde; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje lifden
 * Perfect: ic habe gelifd...

Secgen - to say

 * Present: ic secge, þu sæȝst, he sæȝþ; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje secgeþ
 * Past:   ic sæȝde, þu sæȝdest, he sæȝde; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje sæȝden
 * Perfect: ic habe gesæȝd...

Wesen/Been - to be
Wesen/Been is the only verb with a distinct future tense, as all other verbs use werðen and the infinitive.
 * Present: ic em, þu ert, he is; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje sind
 * Past:   ic was, þu wast, he was; wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje waren
 * Perfect: ic em gewesen...
 * Future: ic bim, þu bist, he biþ;wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje beeþ - I will be
 * Future Perfect: ic bim gebeen...I will have been (in the future past now, but completed in the future at some point)
 * Future Perfect (referring to now): ic bim gewesen...I will have been in the past (now or before now)

Numbers

 * 1-20: an, tweȝn, þrie, fier, feif, six, sefen, aht, neiȝn, tien, endlefen, twelf, þrietien, fiertien, feiftien, sixtien, sefentien, ahttien, neiȝntien, tweȝntiȝ
 * decades: tien, tweȝntiȝ, þrittiȝ, fiertiȝ, feiftiȝ, sixtiȝ, sefentiȝ, ahttiȝ, neiȝntiȝ, hund/hundred, endlefentiȝ, twelftiȝ
 * hundreds: hund/hundred, twahund, þriehund, fierhund, feifhund...
 * larger numbers: þusend, tienþusend, hundþusend, Million (10^6), Billion (10^9), Trillion (10^12), Quadrillion (10^15), Quintillion (10^18), et al.

Writing numbers: when writing numbers, like in German, they are written together, with the digits preceding the decades. When writing hundreds, you write hundred when it's an even hundred (100, 200,..., 900), but otherwise, the shortened form is used.
 * 31: anandþrittiȝ
 * 568: feifhundahtandsixtiȝ
 * 9327: neiȝnþusendþriehundsefenandtweȝntiȝ

Genitive

 * andlang - alongside
 * hweilen - during
 * inteiden - during (a variant from in Teiden - in times)
 * innerseids - inside of
 * oferseids - on top of
 * onstede - in place of, instead of
 * underseids - underneath, on the bottom of
 * utenseids - outside of
 * wiþ - opposite of

Dative

 * mid - with
 * onmang - among
 * oþ - until

Accusative

 * þurh - through
 * wiþ - against (ic fehte wiþ hin I fight with/against him)

Dative/Accusative

 * in
 * ofer
 * on

Syntax
=Dictionary=
 * Nouns
 * Verbs

=Example text= Fader user in Hefen, Gehaliȝd werðe þein Name, Þein Reic kume, Þein Wille gelimpe, on Erðe so eak on Hefen. Gif us todæȝ user dæȝlice Bread, And forgif usic useres Sculdes, So we forgifeþ usere Sculdiger And ne læd usic in Kostnung, Ak alies usic þes Yfelen. Forþem þein is þat Reic, and þie Maht, and þat Wuldor, æfre on æfre, Amen.

=Uses= Englisc is usable in many fields, including science, education, diplomacy, and every day life. If you'd like to use the language and expand it, please help out and put up some texts in the language.