Proto-Taspin

Proto-Taspin is the language of the south east lands in Bidunia. This is the most ancient classical language of the people who first migrated into the area.

Classification and Dialects
This language diverged into several dialects that became their own languages.

Pronouns
Pronouns have all the same cases as nouns, but with one important difference. Singular non-interrogative pronouns in the ABS case are always marked and end with an "-o". E.g. ''so, tho, mo, rjommo, ithawo, maihso. ''The interrogative pronouns do not typically decline, so need not end in "-o", and the plurals of the listed pronouns just add a "-p".

Nouns
There are nine cases in PT that have no particular order. They are all suffixes that are added onto the root word.

Absolutive
The ABS case is unmarked on the noun, and it is used for the subjects of intransitive verbs. Adjectives, however, take an "o" suffix to agree with an ABS noun. Pronouns also end in "-o".

E.g.

K'aphakhir     k'at              ihe pharamithoum

PAST.PFV-eat person.ABS on day.summer-MED-GEN

A person ate yesterday.

Ergative
The ergative case is marked with "-e", and it is used for the subjects of transitive verbs.

E.g.

Ermephaja           k'athonope     ŋesu

PRES-GNO-drink child-PL-ERG water-ACC

Children drink water.

Accusative
The accusative case is marked with "-u" and is used for the objects of transitive verbs.

E.g.

Ermephaja           k'athonope     ŋesu

PRES-GNO-drink child-PL-ERG water-ACC

Children drink water.

Dative
The dative case is marked with "-o" and is used for the indirect object or the beneficiary. It traditionally comes after the ACC.

E.g.

Thet'ep'an         jeŋure      nurau        sopo

PRES-IPFV-give sun-ERG light-ACC 1.PL-DAT

The sun gives us light.

Genitive
The genitive case is marked with "-um" and is used for possession. It always follows the noun it describes.

E.g.

Aŋsamani          so              pi umiso       ŋesum        moramahs

PAST-INCEP-go 1.SG-ABS to edge-DAT water-GEN day.winter-DIST

I started to go to the edge of the water on the day before yesterday.

Ablative
"-a"

Instrumental
"-aj"

Vocative
"-ir"

Locative
"-i"

Adjectives
Adjectives come after the noun they modify, and they agree with them only in case. This is for attributive As though. Predicate As are uninflected with no case, and this is how they are told apart. Numbers, attributive or not, do not take any agreement. They also follow the noun.

Comparative
The comparative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-us'

Superlative
The superlative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-(e)rn'

Extremitive
The extremitive form of an adjective adds the suffix '-jot''

Moderative
The moderative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-ha'

Permanentive
The permanentive form of an adjective adds the suffix '-akhi'

Temporal
The temporal form of an adjective adds the suffix '-own'

Prepositions
Most prepositions (Ps) are pretty straight forward. Different Ps require the following noun to decline in a specific case, sometimes seemingly arbitrary, and sometimes to change its meaning. There are seven different types of Ps: absolutive, ergative, dative, genitive, ablative, two-way, and three-way Ps. The two-way Ps make the distinction between stative and dynamic senses, stative requiring the LOC case, and dynamic the ABL case. Three-way Ps make the same distinction, but they can also be used to describe time in some form. This temporal usage requires the GEN case.

Verbs
Verbs are separated into various types, and they are distinguished by their suffixes. Verb types 1, 2, 3, 4 are respectively "-ir(-)", "-an(-)", "-is(-)", and "-aj(-)". On every verb are two obligatory markers, tense and aspect. Mood suffixes are optional.

Tense
All tense markers are prefixes that attach to the beginning of the verb, before the aspect marker.

Past
The past tense is used as one would expect. The prefixes "k'a-" and "aŋ-" are used respectively with verb types 1/3 and 2/4.

Recent Past
The recent past tense is used to describe verbs that are relatively recent. This varies wildly between verbs. This may be in the past few hours with the verb "eat", but in the past few weeks when you "climbed" a tree. There is only one suffix, "p'i-".

Present
The present tense is marked with the prefixes "the-", for verb types 1 and 2, and "er-", for types 3 and 4.

Immediate Future
The immediate future is used just as relatively as the recent past. It varies from verb to verb, and can be anywhere from later that day to in a month or two. There is one suffix, "no-".

Future
The future is marked with the prefixes "ju-" for verb types 1 and 4, and "um-" for types 2 and 3.

Aspect
The aspect markers are attached between the tense marker and the verb itself. They are really just a consonant because the vowel following the consonant marker assimilates to the same one used in the tense marker.

Perfective
The perfective aspect is used for verbs that have been completed by the time of the corresponding tense. The perfective marker is "-ph(V)-"

Inceptive
The inceptive aspect is marked with "-s(V)-". It is used for verbs that are just starting at the tense indicated.

Imperfective
The imperfective indicates verbs that have already begun, but haven't finished. It is marked with "-t'(V)-".

Gnomic
The gnomic aspect is an odd one. It was and is used to mark truths about the world and facts that cannot be disputed, but it is believed that the speakers of PT had already begun to use this aspect for facts of all kinds, including feelings, truths, and beliefs. It conveys a stronger message. It is marked with "-m(V)-".

Durative
The durative aspect signals that a verb is lasting for a little period of time. It has already begun and will keep going for a while, but will eventually stop. This applies to the wind blowing to playing an instrument. It uses "-w(V)-".

Negative
The negative mood is used just like Japanese. To specify that an action is not done, this mood is used. There are two morphemes that signify the mood. For 1 and 3 type verbs, the suffix "-mo" is used. For verb types 2 and 4, the suffix "-nu" is used.

E.g.

Interrogative
The interrogative mood is used to ask yes or no questions. The suffix "-kho" is added to verb types 1 and 2, and the suffix "-par" is added to types 3 and 4.

Conditional
The conditional mood is used to express doubt, hypothetical situations, or irrealis statements. The suffixes "-sup" and "-he" are used respectively for verb types 1/4 and 2/3.

Desiderative
The desiderative is used to express genuine wants and desires onto the verb. This is added to verbs to indicate that it is a desire for the speaker to perform the verb. When wishing to use "want" as a standalone verb, i.e. I want food, then the verb nawis. Confusingly, you may also use nawis as an auxilliary to indicate that the desire/want for the verb is hopeless, fruitless, impossible, or disingenuous, without a possibility of its reality. The suffix is "-naws", and it is used with all verb types.

 E.g. 

P'it'ithajnaws           se              k'atopu

P'i-t'i-thaj-naws       se             k'at-op-u

REC-IPFV-lead-DES 1.SG.ERG person-PL-ACC

I want to lead the people.

 E.g 

Ert'enawis           ir          so             k'athon                t'up

Er-t'e-nawis        ir          so            k'at-hon               t'up

PRES-IPFV-want be.INF 1.SG.ABS person.DIM.ABS again

I want to be a child again.

 E.g. 

Ermenawis           se              rwek'imosu

Er-me-nawis        se             rwek'imos-u

PRES-GNO-want 1.SG.ERG food-ACC

I want food.

Deontic
The deontic is used for quite a few different things. It is used as an imperative, but it is also used as an optative to express your desires and wishes. It doesn't use any tense or aspect prefixing. The suffix "-m" is used on all verb types, however, the "n" in "-an" stem verbs gets deleted when it occurs next to "m". "-is", "-aj", and "-ir" stem verbs don't change. E.g. *P'anm! > P'am! = Give!

Active
There is no marking on verbs for the active voice. Transitive verbs and intransitive ones stay intransitive.

 E.g. 

Thet'epintan      so            t'orii

PRES-IPFV-live 1.sg.ABS house-LOC

I live in a house

 E.g. 

P'iphip'annu            se             phuŋau           tho

REC-PFV-ask-NEG 1.sg.ERG question-ACC 2.sg.DAT

I didn't just ask you a question

Passive
The passive construction is marked by the suffix "wi" on the verb. Like many passives, it takes the ACC and makes it the ABS. The original ERG argument can be left off or placed back in as an ABL. Intransitive verbs cannot be passivised. This construction is most useful for relative clauses, for only the ABS may be relativised.

E.g.

Aŋphak'ane se pik'u

PAST-PFV-see 1.SG.ERG tree-ACC

I saw a tree

Transformation:

Aŋphak'anewi pik' sa

PAST-PFV-see-PASS tree-ABS 1.SG.ABL

A tree was seen by me

Causative
The causative is the only valency increasing construction in Proto-Taspin. It is the suffix "(i)k'" attached to the verb. With an intransitive verb, the ABS becomes the ACC and the causer becomes the ERG. With a transitive verb, the ACC stays the ACC, but the ERG gets demoted to DAT and the causer becomes the ERG. With a ditransitive verb,***************

E.g. 1 argument

Ert'et'isi tho

PRES-IPFV-run 2.SG-ABS

you are running

Transformation:

Ert'et'isik' sope thu

PRES-IPFV-run-CAUS 1.PL-ERG 2.SG-ACC

I made you run

E.g. 2 arguments

Thesek'ane se nurarumu

PRES-INCEP-see 1.SG-ERG light-PROX-ACC

I'm starting to see the light

Transformation:

Thesek'anek' se nurarumu tho

PRES-INCEP-see-CAUS 1.SG-ERG light-PROX-ACC 2.SG-DAT

I'm making you start to see the light

Antipassive
This construction is used exclusively for the relative clause formation. It does not make any sense to use this construction outside of them because they are semantically equivalent. It also has SVO order. When going from ACT to ANTIP with a transitive verb, the suffix "mar" is added to the verb, the ERG becomes ABS, and the ACC becomes INSTR. For intransitive verbs, just add the suffix and flip the order. When this clause is used, the beginning clause usually needs to be passivised in order for the ABS to be the subject of both clauses. Auxiliary stuff (like ABL, DAT, INSTR) are usually placed before the Rel clause, but may go after too.

 E.g. 2 arguments: 

Ert'ephaja k'ate ŋesu

PRES-IPFV-drink person-ERG water-ACC

A person drinks water

Transformation:

K'at ert'ephajamar ŋesaj

person.ABS PRES-IPFV-drink-ANTIP water-INSTR

A person who drinks water

 Application: 

K'awasiriwi sa k'at aŋt'aphajamar ŋesaj

PAST-DUR-love-PASS 1.SG-ABL person-ABS PAST-IPFV-drink-ANTIP water-INSTR

For a while was loved by me a person who drank water

For a while, I loved a person who drank water

Middle
The middle voice in PT is used for three things: reflexives, impersonal statements when the subject and patient are the same (the window broke), and emotions (ich fühle mich gut). The suffix is "-oŋ" and it attaches to the verb.

Reflexive Use:

P'iphijot'anoŋ           so              ihe pharamrumum

REC-PFV-wash-MID 1.SG-ABS on day.summer-PROX-GEN

I washed myself today.

Impersonal Statements:

K'amakowisioŋ           kham       thum

PAST-GNO-break-MID plant.ABS 2.SG-GEN

Your plant broke.

Emotions:

Ert'emart'ajaoŋ          so              rokhin

PRES-IPFV-find-MID 1.SG-ABS happy

I find myself happy.

I feel happy.

Word Order
Word order is pretty relaxed because of the case system, but there is a general convention that is followed. The verb usually always comes first, except in antipassive clauses and fronting of a nonverb for emphasis. The ERG always precedes the ACC. PPs generally come after the ACC, but may go wherever they fit best. Usually the ERG and ACC are next to each other, so any other cases that may be present usually follow these, including the DAT. To avoid confusion with the ABS, the DAT always comes after the ACC.

Noun Phrase
PT is a strongly head initial language, so it's no surprise that nouns always come first in their phrases. This means that adjectives, genitives, and relative clauses all follow the noun.

Stress
The stress of PT is a mostly fixed antepenultimate system with the stress on the 3rd to last syllable. The exception is when there is an ejective in the ultimate or penultimate position. These are heavy syllables and the stress appears on the rightmost syllable. So TL;DR, the rightmost ejective preceded syllable or the antepenultimate syllable will get the stress, whichever is closest to the end.

E.g. Nurak'áne = wake up = ejective triggered stress

Jósaphon = cool/cold = regular antepenultimate stress

Having heavy syllables be determined by the onset has been a mystery for some time. It is thought that the language used to have special codas, now disappeared, that triggered the weight. Something like pharyngeals or glottalized consonants. Another theory is that there were long vowels or diphthongs that shortened and monophthongized, leaving behind their heavy quality. There is no consensus. (but the daughter language stress regularized as one would expect. Right Bryce? Is it a good system?? hMM????????)

Complementizer Clauses
Complementizer clauses are easy because they just use the CONJ "kho" meaning "that".

E.g. I said that I was hungry.

I dreamt that I flew in the sky.

Relative Clauses
Relative clause are a bit more complicated than C clauses. The only thing that can be relativized is the absolutive case and PPs. This ABS must be lined up between the two clauses

Prepositional Phrases
PPs are easy to relativize. The object of the P is replaced with a pronoun with the correct case, and is placed between the two sentences.

E.g. The day I met you was a good day.

Was day good on it met I you.

PAST - GNO -be day.summer- ABS  good- ABS  on  3. SG - GEN   PAST - INCEP -know  1. SG - ERG   2. SG - ACC

Amir              pharam                k'orthio    ihe mum       aŋsajaman           se            thu

Ergative
To relativize the ergative argument, the clause must use the antipassive voice to turn ERG into ABS.

Accusative
To relative the accusative argument, use the passive voice to turn ACC into ABS.

Other Cases
To relativize other cases, the most common strategy is using a separate sentence.***

E.g. I cut the bread with a knife. It was sharp.

*** Although, in the later years that this proto lang was likely spoken, the C kho became used to relativize other cases. This carried into the daughter languages as well (right Bryce?? RIGHT?????).

Conditionals
there are 4 words for if.

Certain conditional; ''If/when I get off work, I will be happy. I will be happy if/when I get off work''

-This conditional has the meaning that the antecedent WILL occur (or expected to anyway) in the future.

Hypothetical conditional; ''If it starts to rain, I will go inside. I will go inside if it starts to rain.''

-This construction expresses uncertainty as to whether the antecedent will occur or not.

-The consequent will happen if the antecedent happens, but is not too strong.

Universal conditional; ''If I drop a ball, it will fall. A ball will fall if I drop it.''

-In this condition, the antecedent is uncertain and may or may not occur.

-The consequent, however, is a fact and always occurs.

-This meaning can be expanded to less factual situations, adding a meaning like certainly/for sure.

-This form is also special because the consequent is always marked with the gnomic aspect

Whether conditional; ''If/whether he came home, I don't know. I don't know if/whether he came home.''

-This form is different from the others, more like a complementizer. It comes after intransitives.

http://www.guidetojapanese.org/learn/grammar/conditionals

The Body
The body is organized a little differently to the way English divides it. Legs are different from arms, but hands/feet and toes/fingers are the same.