Lutanian

The conlang uses the Latin script - basic alphabet with various diacritics. It is a pluricentric language regarding pronunciation, vocabulary and writing.

The letter W [vé doule, wau] is not a part of the alphabet, but the letter J is included instead representing the sound / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/ with the alphabetical name / ͡jʝe/ or /je/. The alphabetic letter C is read /ts/ like the sound in German.

Main characteristics of pronunciation

The main values of consonants in stressed syllables are:

A /a/, E /ɛ/ ~ /e/, I, Y /i/, O /o/, U /u/ (as found in the alphabet)

â, î = /ə/

Note: i, î, and y can represent intervocalic /j/ (a semiconsonant). Word initially, i (or y) in front of a vowel is pronounced /j/. The diacritic ^ on the vowel u (û) indicates the semivowel sound /w/.

The circumflex on o (ô) denotes a long open pronunciation or a diphthong: /wo/ ~ /(w)ɔ:/ (in standard norm). In various dialects it can be pronounced differently, as /wa/ (also written -oa-) or /u:/ (also written ó).

The alphabetic consonants are pronounced mainly as in English (unless indicated otherwise, see below). B /b/, D /d/, G /ɡ/, P /p/, T /t/, K /k/ are not aspirated.

There are three ways to read the alphabet:

1) The conventional: add the vowel sound /e/ after consonants B, C /͡tse/, D, G*/ɡe/ ~ /ʒe/, J /je/ ~ /͡jʝe/, Nj (ň), /nje/, P, Q* /ke/ or /ku:/*, T, V* /ʋe/, X* /ʃe/ or /iks/*, Lj /ʎe/, Z /ze/~ /dze/. Add /ɛ/ ~ /e/ in front of consonant sounds: F /ɛ̯f:(ə)/, L /ɛ̯ɫ(ə)/ ~ /ɛ̯l(ə)/, M /ɛ̯m(ə)/, N /ɛ̯n(ə)/, R /ɛr:(ə)/, S /ɛ̯s:(ə)/ (long consonants are: /f:/, /r:/, /s:/)

Y= /ips/, used primarily as the conjunction "and", replaced by et /e/ either if the preceding word ends or the following word starts in a vowel.

Special consonants which are pronounced with the vowel: -a /a/: H /xa(k)/, K /ka:/ or /ka̯p˺/

Special consonant that can be pronounced with /e/ or /u/: Q /ke:/ or /ku:/, V /ʋe/ or /ʋu:/

2) The simplified first: add /e/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some differences are: F /f:e/, H /xe:/, L /le:/, S /s:e/ etc.

3) The simplified second: add /ə/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some examples: H /xə/, L /lə/, S /s:ə/ etc.

Nasals - letters with ogonek diacritic (a, e, u with ogonek) are not included in the alphabet count as they are considered to be variants of the main vowel. They are pronounced the same in stressed and unstressed syllables:

Ą ą /ɑ̃/, non nasal variant /ɔ/,

Ę ę /ɛ̃/, non nasal variant /ɛ/, regionally /e:/

-on, alternative: Ų ų  /ɔ̃/, non-nasal variant /ɔ/, /on/, /ɔ(n)/.

These three letters are important as distinctive grammatical endings. They can sometimes appear inside a word root (like męs /mɛ̃:s/), but their pronunciation word internally can also be an oral equivalent of the vowel (similar or identical to a, e, u or o: męs /mɛ:s/ ~ /mẽ:s/).

Vowel reduction feature

Final syllable sound -e is reduced to /ə/ in an unstressed syllable, not applicable to diphthongs (like -ei) except dialectally. This is important for grammatical endings: -e (without diacritics) vs -ę. The exact distribution of stressed variants /ɛ/ vs /e/ and /o/ vs /ɔ/ is not significant, although it is suggested (sometimes by accent diacritics, see below). Unstressed -e- in other positions is /e/ in the standard variety, and /ə/ in certain dialects. Unstressed -o- is always /o/ in standard pronunciation (not /ɔ/).

Dialectally, variations are found with reduction of unstressed -e- in all syllables and also in the unstressed diphthong -ei-, reduction of unstressed -a- to /ɐ/ or /ə/, and/or unstressed -o- to /u/ (rare, region dependent), all by influence of the speakers' native languages.

Using accute and grave accents: The marked accent denotes the stressed (tonic) syllable. The existing forms are: á, é, í, ó, ú (with acute accent) and à, è, ò, ù (with grave accent).

Generally, the acute accent represents a slightly longer vowel in open syllables (like á /a:/), while the grave accent generally denotes a somewhat shorter vowel: à /a̯/ in closed syllables. As word final vowels, letters with accents may be used with grammatical value (as endings), so the brevity rule does not always apply (the grammar rule dictates pronunciation, like in the verbal infinitives: cantà /kan.'ta/ - to sing).

The acute or grave accent on e and o also have a recommended pronunciation with different qualities:

é /e/ and è /ɛ/ (as in French), ó /o/ and ò /ɔ/ (all recommended). The letter ô denotes a long, open sound /ɔ:/, or a diphthong /wɔ:/ ~ /wɔ:/ (recommended): as in: oôs/ous - eggs, dôs/dous/duos - two.

Monosyllabic words only may have acute or grave accent for grammatical reasons (examples: bé - letter name, B, èsse - letter name, S, esse - verb to be).

Vowel combination: -ai- is pronounced as a monophthong /ɛ/, word finally /e/. This doesn't apply when diacritics are used: âi /əj/, ài /a̯j/, ái /a:j/, aí /a.'i/ (the latter example represents two syllables).

Diphthongs: diphthongs are formed with all of the vowels a, e, i, o, u except for the combinations: ae, oe, ai. The sound /ə/ makes the diphthongs /əj/ (âi, îi) and or /wə/ (uâ).

The strong components of the diphthongs are: a, e, o (/a/, /e/, /o/, "a" is the strongest), and the weak components are i, u. In diphtongs like ea, oa, e becomes the equivalent of weak -i- /j/, and o the equivalent of a semivocalic -u- /w/, so ea = /e̯a/ ~ /ja/, oa = ua = /wa/. If not marked by diacritics the weak (i, u) combinations are pronounced with the full first vowel: ui /uj/, iu /iw/, word initially iu-/ju/. The combinations eo and ao practically do not appear as they are identical in pronunciation to eu /ew/ and au /aw/. An accent mark may change the stressed part of the diphthong, or produce two separate syllables, as in eó /e̯o/ or /jo/ - identical to io /jo/; aí /a.'i/ - two syllables, as the vowel "a" cannot be made a weak part of a diphthong.

Some words morphologically have separate syllables (a hiatus) instead of a diphthong, e.g. ei /'e.i/ or /e:j/ = they (from e + ending -i), eos /'e.os/ - them (from e- + -os), virtúe /ʋir.'tu.ə/ (stem + ending -e), melodíe /me.lo.'ði.ə/  ~ /mə-/.

Spelling considerations for the diphthong -ie

If the consonants D, N, R, T are followed by the diphthong -ie in an unstressed syllable, write ďe /djə/, ňe /ɲə/, ře /ɾjə/, ťe /tjə/. In stressed syllables you should write: dě /dje/, ně /nje/, rě /rje/, tě /tje/. With other consonants the unstressed form is written -ie /jə/, and the stressed form: -ě /je/. If the printing options are limited, every -ě can be replaced by -ie (alternative spelling).

Consonant sounds

We will explain consonants with diacritics, digraphs representing one sound and special sounds. With all consonants, word final devoicing may occur e.g. /b/ → /p/ etc., depending on the speaker.

B̌ b̌ (B with caron): /w/, identical to û /w/: example: pob̌l /powl/ (alternative script - B'/b' or B̌ and lowercase b').

C - /k/ in syllables ca, co, cu, câ /kə/, and in front of consonants like: cr e me /'kre:.mə/;

/s/ or /ts/ in syllables ce, ci, cî. Note: cai = /kaj/ (avoided, breaks the ai /ɛ/ vowel rule in favour  the ca /ka/ rule).

CC - follows the rule of C + consonant (like CTI /kt(s)i/, CCI /ksi/). Depending on the speaker, CC may sound as /ts/.

CH - /͡tʃ/. In some dialects: /k/ in front of e, i, y, î.

Ç - word initially and finally /͡ts/, regionally /s/, word-internally between vowels: /s/, after a consonant: /ts/.

G /ɡ/ in syllables ga, go, gu (+a, â, o or cons.), gă /ɡə/; /ʒ/ in syllables ge, gi, gî; /dʒ/ in word-final -eig /e̯dʒ/, -aig /a̯dʒ/ or /ɛ̯dʒ/, otherwise word finally /ɣ/ (recommended in unstressed syllables), or /k/, /k˺/, /ɡ/ (voicing in "liaison").

GU /ɡ/ in front of -i, -e, -î: gui /ɡi/, gue, guî; otherwise as other rules provide. In some areas (dialectally), GU + vowel always gives /g/.

GH /g/ or /ɣ/ in front of e, i, y, î. Used in words where the Latin etymon does not have -gu- or -qu-. E.g. guid - guide (not *ghid), guerre - war (from a Germanic word with /w/).

TG - in intervocalic or word-final position: /dʒ/ (regionally spelt TJ)

Note*: gai = /ɡaj/, guai = /ɡɛ/, gûai /ɡwɛ/

J - pronounced as / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/. JJ is marked: /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/. TJ, CJ, KJ= /͡tʃ/. SJ = /ʃ/, ZJ = /ʒ/, GJ = /dʒ/, HJ = /ç/

Lj - /ʎ/ or regionally /j:/ ~ /jl/, (Spanish variant) /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/, geminated (spelling): jlj /ʎ:/, regionally spelt: LH

H - mute (not pronounced), when pronunciation is needed it is written double: hh /x/ ~ /h/, as in the letter name: H: hhá /xa/.

Qu - /kw/ in syllables qua, quo, quâ, /k/ in syllables que, qui, quî. Note: quai = /kɛ/.

S - /s/, in intervocalic position /z/, even accross words (by linking). Regionally: always /s/. The geminated -SS- is always pronounced /s/.

X - /dz/ in syllables xa, xo, xu, (rare), /ʃ/ ~ /ɕ/ in syllables xe, xi, xî, xâ, eix /e(j)ʃ/, aix /a̯(j)ʃ/, and after T in all contexts (see TX).

May be /ks/ in internationalisms like taxi /'ta̯ksi/. Ortographically: xia /ʃa/ ~ /ɕa/, xiu /ʃju/~ /ɕ:u/ xio /ʃo/ ~ /ɕo/ (without diacritics).

** in -aix the a+i rule is broken in favour of the pronunciation: /a̯ʃ/, /ajʃ/.

* TX = /͡tʃ/ in all contexts.

Z - /z/,  only regionally /dz/.

The consonant D in intervocalic position can be pronounced as /ð/ - recommended.

The consonants D, N, R, T, have palatalised versions: Ď/ď /dj/~ /dʐ/, Ň/ň /ɲ/, Ř/ř /rj/ ~ /ɾj/, Ť/ť /tj/ ~ /tj/, used in front of vowels with a grammatical value. Alternative spellings are with an apostrophe or the tilde (~): D'/d', N'/ n' or Ñ/ñ, R'/r' and T'/t'. Since the ň can be geminated (-ňň-), the apostrophe would be used only once after double n: aňňos / añños / ann'os /'a̯.ɲ(.)os/.

Gemminate consonants, if they appear, can be pronounced long, e.g. -SS- /s:/, -RR- /r:/. They are mainly used to clearly indicate short (closed) syllables (CVC). Consonant clusters tend to be simplified in most "dialects", yet not so much in the standard norm. The final -s (grammatically important) is pronounced at the expense of other consonants (nasals, or cluster-middle consonants), except when word function or case is evident from other words in a phrase. Consonant encounters across word boundaries also tend to be undergo assimilation.

Word stress (accent)

Variable nominal words (nouns, adjectives, pronouns) receive stress on the penultimate syllable of their full plural nominative form (if the word ends in a vowel + -s), and generally the same place of stress is maintained in all inflected forms (including different genders of adjectives).

Following the rule above

- most singular words ending in a vowel have stress on the penultimate vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-), and

- most singular words ending in a consonant (including etymological, but dropped final -n, -l, -r) have stress on the last vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-).

E.g.

cugine - cugines (subject form sg./pl.) - kitchen(s) /ku̯. 'ʒi.nə(s)/

cătăine - cătenes - chain(s) /kə. 'təj.nə/ /kə. 'te:.nəs/

natiú[n] - natiunes - nation(s) /na̯.'tsju.nəs/

natíu (natif, natí) - natíos - native /na̯.' tiw/ /na̯.'ti̯.os/ (adj. masculine sg./pl.)

The adjective forming suffix -ic- /i̯k/ and its variant -ec- /ək/ cannot be stressed, so the stress moves one syllable to the left in these forms: històric, classic /i̯.'stɔ̯.ri̯k/ /'kla̯.s:ik/. The default penultimate syllable stress in these masculine singular subject forms is maintained in all other forms: hist ò ricos, cl a ssicos.

Exceptions include the instances when the vowel which should receive stress is -i- or -u- or belongs to a so-called unstressed syllabic infix (mostly -u- or /ə/):

c o nsul /'kon.sul/ - a consul, h o măns /'ɔ.məns/ - of a man, man's, c o rpures /'kur.purəs/

Action doer morpheme syllable -or, -ur is unstressed when no ending follows (with -Ø ending), but stressed in other forms. This creates an exception to the accentuation rule, which is not followed in all regions.

pintur/pintur - pintores - painter(s); de pintôre /pin'two:.rə/ - from a painter

The action doer suffix -ul- cannot be stressed: consul - consules - a consul, de consule - from a consul

Verbal forms have the stress determined by grammatical form, but the default stress is on the penultimate syllable of the full form (also zero elements must be counted). The verbal forms have a feature of not pronouncing the final syllable -e is plural conjugation forms (which is also counted as a syllabic element).

cant-u or cant (-Ø) I sing (stem + ending).

Grammar

$1. Nouns and adjectives

Lutanian nouns and adjectives distinguish:

a) gender (masculine/M, feminine/F, neuter or neutral/N)

b) number (singular and plural)

c) case (grammatical and euphonic)

d) definiteness (definite and indefinite, through form and the usage of articles)

The default word order is S-V-O.

Lutanian nouns are divided in four groups (I - IV) based on their morphology and assigned characteristics (e.g. gender). Adjectives have the sane morphology as nouns (of groups I - III), but are organised in only two groups.

The genders are distributed as follows:

- group I - F, group II - M or N (animate -M, inanimate M or N), group III - F or M+N, group IV - F. The feminine gender nouns can be animate or inanimate. M and N nouns can be selected based on Latin roots or arbitrarily/euphonically. Animate nouns will be masculine (not neuter) except for some nouns which do not make explicit reference to biological sex, like animal (group III), fant (group III - child).

Most nouns /adjectives distinguish at least two grammatical - functional and euphonic forms: subject form (lexical form or the nominative) and non - subject form, which is typically preceded by a preposition - prepositional [case] form.

In the euphonic declension, a singular number noun can have the ending zero (-Ø ) or a vocalic ending (-a, -e, -u).

Group I nouns always have a non-zero ending: -a for the definite form and -e /ə/ for the indefinite singular form (originating from a phonetic reduction of -a to -ă /ə/, ortographically always -e). Example: (la) casa / une case - the house / a house

The subject (nominative form - singular ) has the default endings: -a (definite, group I), -Ø (no ending, groups II - IV). E.g.

casa - house (group I), mur - wall (group II), nuit - night (group III)

The subject ending can be a non-zero for certain phonological and grammatical reasons (to emphasize gender or definiteness) group II -u, group III/IV -e. The given vowels (-a, -u, -e) are called thematic endings for the respective groups.

Examples: t e mplu - neuter gender - group II (also phonologically induced ending), hospit a l(e) - neuter gender - group III.

cris e - crisis (F gender, phonologically induced ending, from Lat. cris is),

nuit - night (F gender, no phonologically induced ending, from Lat. nox ).

The vowels -u and -e (as thematic) are optional/euphony based for neuter gender nouns (in groups II and III) and in group IV nouns (which are of F gender). The vocalic ending (-a or -e as definite/indefinite) is mandatory for group I nouns in singular (which are feminine).

The prepositional form (or case) in singular has the default thematic vowel endings: -a (definite, group I), -u (group II), -e (groups III/IV).

Whenever a singular noun is preceded by a preposition (with exceptions for direct/indirect objects), it can have a thematic ending (characteristic of its group). The ending -a is mandatory, others are optional (euphony based):

în casa - in (the) house (group I), în mund(u) - on the world (group II), în nuit(e) - in the night (group III), în face /în faç (group IV).

Group IV noun stems usually end in -i- (stressed or unstressed). The unstressed stem-final -i- is orthographically dropped if the ending is -e(s) or Ø, with possible palatalization effect on the preceding consonant, in all noun groups, e.g.

faç (stem faci- + -Ø) - the face

soç (stem soci + -Ø) - partner (M), compare: con sociu /'so(t)sju/ - with a partner.

soce (from soci + -e) - partner (F), compare: con socia /'so(t)sja/ - with a partner.

Other frequent sound changes found in nominal words are:

a) loss of an original stem final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. pą /pɑ̃:/ ~ /pɔ:/, oblique: con pan(e) /'pa:n(ə)/ - with bread (gr. III, M), mą /mɑ̃:/ ~ /mɔ:/, oblique: în man(u) (II, M), in a hand, natiú - nation,

fi (from etymological fi[lj]) - oblique con fiu -with the boy (II), compare F form con filja - systematically maintained consonant -lj-;

ami[c] - oblique con amiu /a.'miw/ (ami[c] + -u) - with a friend (M, gr II), compare F form con am i a (systematic loss of -c-)

b) vocalisation of an original stem-final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. riu -Ø (from Latin riv-us), oblique în riu (analysed as ri(v)- + ending -u).

c) diphthongization or iotation of stressed stem vowel -o- or -u- and -e-:

- group I: stressed -o-/-u- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -a, or -ą: une scole - la scoala /'skwa.la/ - school

- group III (F/N): stressed -o- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e, -ę or -a: une flor, flur - de floare /'flu̯a.rə/ - from a flower

- group III (M anim.): stressed -o-/-u- > -ô- /wo:/ in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e: un p i ntur - de pintôre - from a painter.

These changes do not occur in the plural nor when -o-/-u- is followed by -n-: avion /a'ʋjɔ̃(n)/~/a'ʋjo:(n)/, /'u:(n)/, leon.

Nouns of group II (u-nouns by Latin heritage) which are designated as neuter gender by the speaker, can also optionally have the ending -e (singular), if it would make them more similar to their English or French language equivalents. E.g.

lu templu / lu temple - the temple (group II or III), pal a u - pal a ce (group II or III) (consonantic sound change - stem palatsi- → palaçi- + -u/-e)

lu vidriu / lu v i dre /'ʋiðrə/- glass (group II or III).

Some borrowings with the ending -o (radio, studio) are treated as neuter nouns, and the prepositional form takes the ending -u: în studiu.

Certain male names can act the same way (being treated as M gender): Bruno - con Brunu or con Bruno (with Bruno).

The direct object form marking (accusative) is not mandatory, and it can be:

a )  identical to the subject form (inanimate non-feminine and all plural)

b ) similar to the non-subject form (only in sg.) - thematic, with nasal ending employed for all animate, all feminine gender nouns and all proper nouns in sg.

Nasal endings correspond to their oral counterparts by group: I -ą /ɑ̃/, II -on /ɔ̃/, III and IV: -ę /ɛ̃/.

The genitive case singular

To express a possessive relation or partition you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  de + noun  (for abstracts terms), or noun +  a(L) + noun .

E.g. une t a ce de v i n(u) - a glass of wine,   c a rta di acc o rd(iu) - an agreement letter, amic a(l) fiu - a friend of the boy.

Optional, inherent endings for genitive nouns in singular are: -i (F), -s (M/N gender). The preposition al either way precedes a noun of masculine or neuter gender (to avoid confusion with the plural).

Most nouns of groups I and IV (i-stems) can receive any ending besides -a (not possible in IV) on a base form ending with -e- (the intervening -e-):

case + -i = c a sei /'ka:ze(j) / - of the house (I), filje + -i = fi ljei - of the girl (I), fac(i)-+-e-+ -i = f a cei /'fa̯t.͡tsje(j)/ - of the face (IV),

Andr e a /an'dre.a/ - proper F name, Andre- + -i = Andr e i - Andrea's

An alternative form for (F) stems ending in -n-, -m-, -r-, -l-, a palatal or the vowel -i- is to add only -i:

filja - filjei or filji - of a girl, Luna - moon, Lunei or Luni - of the Moon, El e na - (F proper name) > El e nei / Eleni - to Elena, Italia > It a liei or It a lii - of Italy.

In group III F gender noun stem can simply receive the ending -i, but marked -ei is also possible and optional for all (frequent for animate nouns):

flor + -i = fl o ri - to a flower, actrí + -(e)i = actr i i, actríei of the actress.

Examples for masculine and neuter: al murs - of the wall, al cămps /'kəm(p)s/ - of the camp, al a ctors /'at.turs/ - of the actor.

If the ending -s is not phonetically applicable, only the thematic singular ending is used for a genitive: e.g. al templu - of the temple.

In indefinite phrases, the preposition al /als helps to distinguish singular from weak plural (in -s) of M and N nouns:

al murs - of the wall, als murs - of the walls.

The -s genitive can be formed from certain proper names (of any gender, if convenient), without prepositions:

Carmen - Carmens (F), Bruno - Brunons /'bru.nɔ̃(n)s/, Brunu 's (M).

The dative case singular - indirect object

To express an indirect object (dative), or possession (genitive), if convenient, you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  a + noun . Examples:

a muru - to the wall, towards the wall,  a fiu - to the boy, a Brunu - to Bruno/of Bruno/Bruno's (possessive form).

Optional, inherent endings for dative nouns in singular are same as for the genitive of feminine gender, and same as the thematic endings for M/N genders (as given above). The preposition a is essentially not required to introduce a singular indirect object, but frequently needed for clarity.

( a ) filjei -  to  a girl,  uni gienei - to a woman,  li  filjei - to the girl

The plural form of nouns

The plural of nouns is formed by adding "thematic" endings to noun stems:

-es /əs/ - groups I, III, IV: (la) casa - (les) cases /'ka:.zəs/ - house(s), filja - filjes - girl(s), flor - flores - flower(s) (III), faç - faces (IV).

-os /os/, /us/ - group II: (el) mur - (los) muros - wall(s), templu/temple - templos/temples (II or III), riu (from Lat. riv-us) -rios, rius (from Lat. rivos).

A weak ending -s is used in euphonic contexts for M and N nouns, e.g. mur - murs (wall, walls). In a euphonic context, the ending -os can be pronounced (and written) -us (murus, rius, estudius). The definite article (M/N) is always written los and pronounced in two ways: /los/ or /lus/.

Certain "borrowings", insufficiently adapted to regular patterns, usually have the plural ending -s: taxi - t a xis, metró - metrós, a lbum - a lbums, café - cafés (all of neuter gender).

An optional (euphonic) ending for nouns preceded by a preposition (excluding direct objects) is the non-thematic -is (for all groups). E.g.

de muris - from walls.

Genitive plural can be expressed with the noun ending -is, without a preposition: e.g.

casa canis - the house of dogs, "dogs' house".

Adjectives

A lexical adjective has semantic forms for all three genders (M/F/N), but they might not be fully distinctive in forms of the singular and/or plural.

Adjectives correspond to noun forms of groups I - III (endings -a, -u, -e), and they are classified in two groups.

1st group or dual-theme adjectives change like nouns of group I in their feminine form (endings -a/-e and -es), and nouns of group II in the masculine and neuter forms (endings -Ø/-u and -os). The feminine gender form is always distinctive.

E.g. une filje nălte - la filja nălta - les filjes înaltes - a/the tall girl(s)

un mur înalt - el mur înalt - los muros nălt(o)s - a/the high wall(s)

u(nu) templu nălt(u) - lu templu nălt(u) - los templos nălt(o)s - a/the high temple(s).

un' hospital(e) înalte - l ' hospital(e) înalt(u) - los hospitales nălt(o)s - a/the high hospital(s) (group III noun - neuter)

The endings -e and -u are optional (for N gender nouns/adjectives) and are distributed euphonically. In a complete syntagm, usually the full inflections are kept in all nouns, and in all terms if the agreement endings are different (examples 2,3,4).

In the genitive and dative, adjectives usually receive weak endings (except the strong -a), which correspond to the following feminine forms:

pôrta casei nălte - the gates of a building - tall     GEN. sg.: F noun -ei or -i; adj -e

a filjei/ filji nălti - to a girl - tall                                     DAT. sg. F noun -ei or -i; adj. -i

2nd group or e-thematic (mono-) adjectives change like nouns of group III in all genders (endings -Ø/-e and -es). The inflected forms can be identical for all genders, but the nominative (subject sg.) form can receive an optional ending -e for the feminine or neuter gender, while it is always -Ø for masculine (animate) nouns.

M: un parc  verd    -     el parc verd  -    los parcos verd(e)s - a/the green park(s)

F: une flor verd(e) -   la flor verd(e) -   les flores verdes - a/the green flower(s)

N: u mar(e) verd(e) -  lu mar(e) verd(e) - los mares verd(e)s - a/the green sea(s).

§2. Articles and definiteness

In a semantic sense, the articles are not obligatory in Lutanian, their usage depends on the speaker. Syntactically, a minimum usage of determiners may be obligatory.

Nouns (or adjectives) ending in -e cannot be used without a determiner or some other part of a syntagm (preposition, adjective, article or other):

e.g. une case (I), la crise (III), în hospitale - in hospital. A name of an object or a proper name - Hospital(e) central(e) (a syntagm)

Definite morphology

Certain nouns exhibit separate indefinite and definite singular forms, others do not. In group I nouns, there is a systematic distinction between -a forms (definite) and -e forms (indefinite): une case - a house                        casa - (the) house

Some group III nouns may take the ending -a for the definite form:

a ) neuter nouns derived from Greek (stem in -ém-): (u) problem(e) - a problem              problema - (the) problem, pl. problemes

b ) agent nouns in -ist-Ø (M or F): artist(e), dentist(e) (group I - F or III - M)   > artista, dentista (M or F definite)

c ) nouns with phonological final -e in the nominative, like crise > crisa (but only to represent an oblique - non-subject definite form).

A subgroup of nouns in group III changes the final consonant s > t for the definite form, e.g. une pars - (la) part - a/the part, (-) gens - people, (la) gent - the people (collective noun).

Articles

Lutanian articles are: definite (stem -l-) or indefinite (stem un- > one).

Usage

General (generic) terms are considered definite and the article is optional (especially in the plural), however, they might be syntactically necessary (for terms ending in -e (see above).

Proper names of people, objects or abstract concepts are also considered definite but they do not bear the definite article (except for object/concept names that might also be considered common terms): e.g.(l') Hospital central, los Estaus Unius.

Proper names (e.g. countries) that contain the conjunction "and" do not bear the article in any circumstance: Trinitat y Tobago, Antigua et Barbuda.

Oblique articles (possessive genitive/dative) may be necessary even in proper names (not of people) as to provide sub-definition of terms (or the "direction" of property).

Indefinite articles specifically indicate a new term (unknown to speakers) or a random item from a set. They are never obligatory and don't have plural forms. They are pro-clitics to nominal words.

The indefinite article

The indefinite article is always used before a noun or a nominal phrase.

* The prepositional case form. Complex elision - between vowels. The form is identical to the elided generic preposition na. ** Syntactic particle (if full article is not used).

A preposition is placed before the indefinite article, e.g. d'unu muru - from a wall, spr(e)-una filja /sprju.na'fi̯.ʎa/ - about a girl, într-un 'hospitale - in a hospital, într-una casa - in a house.

The marking of the direct object in nouns and adjectives is optional, and the indefinite articles are non-nasal: un/unu (M/N - agrees with the noun), a /a/ or una (F).

Syntactically, the prepositions per, ad, contre indicate a direct object, so the article una is acceptable: per + a = per a, pra, per + u(n) - pru(n), contr-a, contr-una, ad a (ad una), ad-un (+ a noun in the basic form).

The definite article in Lutanian can be:

a) pro-clitic to a term (for the subject and direct object, nom./acc. cases), or

b) (optionally) placed after the noun (as a suffix), when the noun is preceded by a preposition. In noun-adjective phrases, the definite article usually comes attached to the noun, and exceptionally an adjective (for emphasis). * The oblique case definite articles may optionally be used as suffix forms (prepositional + dative case). **The genitive singular article is always a SUFFIX.

The suffix article forms are slightly euphonically adapted - always unstressed: thematic case sg.: M/N: -lu/-le, F: -la/-ja/-a, dative singular -i, plural (from lis): -eis (F), -iis (M/N).

The suffix is added to singular thematic forms of nominal words with the adaptation of the definite article in the following manner:

M/N nouns in -u + -lu, -e + -le; F nouns ending in -lja, -ja (-ia) or a diphthong + -la, -e + -a = -ea or just > -a; otherwise -a + -ja.

Example: în t e mplulu - in the temple, con fi ljala - with the girl, în c a saja - in the house.

If an adjective follows a noun ending in -a (F group I) with the suffix definite article (-la, -ja), the suffix definite article will detach an become the interpositional definite article a (linking the noun and the adjective). Ex. con filja a puitra - with the beautiful girl.

Any diphthong in the stressed syllable of the root are reverted to an original monophthong (oa > o, ea > e, etc.), e.g. spre floare + -a = spre fl o rea (or*) fl oa ra (-e + -a = -a) - about the flower, con pint ô re + -le = con pint o rele - with the painter.

For the indirect object the suffix sg. article is -i, the noun ending is either -i or -u (resulting in forms: -ii, -ui). Ex. (a) filjei + -li = (a) filjii - to the girl, a ctoru (III) + -i > act o rui /ak.'to:ruj/ - to the actor.

In the plural prepositional and dative cases (when any preposition precedes the noun), the definite article lis turns into gendered sufixes -eis (F), -iis (M), or euphonical -uis (Neutral, group II), through the following derivation:

de muris + lis > de m u riis - from the walls (M/N), de cases + lis > de c a seis (F) - from the houses, euphonical (N) în templos + lis > în t e mpluis - in the temples.

Agreement in the genitive and dative

The genitive and dative articles have been levelled in gender of the singular, taking the masculine/neuter form as a sample. In the plural, there is a gender distinction in the definite article (common suffixes -eis, -iis).

The indefinite article sg. - genitive/possessive unu + -i = unui /u.nuj/ - of a, dative un- + -i = uni /u.ni/ - to a... (PRO-CLITIC only)

The definite article sg. - genitive/possessive lu + -i = -lui /luj/ - of the, dative l- + -i = li - to the... (-lui SUFFIX only, li - pro-clitic or enclitic as -i)

The word following the genitive sg. article (def. or indf.) will have a weak ending, -e or -u (depending on group and gender).

The word following the article uni or pro-clitic li may have a normal ending (-ei, -i, -u). Ex. uni filjei puitri - to a beautiful girl; li filjei puitri - to the beautiful girl. Using the pro-clitic dative article eliminates the IO preposition a, but not other complex prepositions:

e.g. face a scolii > face li scolei     - towards/facing the school (Dat.)

The word following the suffix definite article -i will have a weak ending, -i or -u. Ex. (a) filjii puitri - to the beautiful girl, a(l) act o rui famòu - to the famous actor.

The word following the plural suffix definite article will have any euphonic ending, in standard -os, -es or -s (depennding on gender). Ex. (a) fi ljeis puitres - to the beautiful girls; a fiiis bons - to the good boys.

The definite plural genitive (possessive) is constructed with the noun ending -is (containing the suffix definite article), without preposition (similar to the simple form): casa canis (+ lis) > casa caniis - the house of the dogs.

§3. Personal pronouns

Lutanian personal pronouns (corresponding to English I, you, we, etc., but also me, us) distinguish the categories of number (sg/pl), gender (in the 3rd person only) and case (subject/object/prepositional). They do not have the category of definiteness (since they are understood only as definite).

The genitive case of personal pronouns is defective, mostly full forms of POSSESSIVE pronouns are used, e.g. of me > my, mine.

The personal pronouns in the nominative case or SUBJECT pronouns are: Stressed subject pronouns. Notice that the plural does not end in -s. Formal address: Vy or Ju (2pl) (akin to English you).

Unlike other words, in the plural, the nominative (subject) pronouns end in -i/-y (M/N) or -e (F). In other cases these forms do end in -s.

There is no direct equivalent for the inanimate 3rd person pronoun it, as used in English. For abstract concepts, the adverbial pronoun hi can be used (sg. and pl.), or simply the M pronouns il (sg.) / ei (pl.), translated as it.

Subject pronouns are stressed, independent words. The 1.sg pronoun jo /jo/, /ju/ can also function as a pro-clitic (unstressed) pronoun.

Subject pronouns are not obligatory with conjugated verbs. In some dialects, a novel unstressed subject pronouns may accompany verbs: jo, ti, ni, vi/ju.

The pronoun of formal address is Vy or Ju (2pl) - when referring to one or more persons. In some regions Ju is used only in a formal setting, otherwise vy is used.

The direct object pronouns (accusative) have a set of stressed, independent forms and a set of clitic (unstressed) forms, which are attached to verbs. Alt. forms (spellings): tb'e, tb'é (b = /w/), sb'e, sb'é, nôos, nôs, nuos (/wo/ ~ /ow/), vôos, vôs, vuos. Jous - 2sg/pl formal.

Most of the forms of the 1st and 2nd persons need the syntactical preposition  a  in certain environments. The endings of the plural and 3rd person sg/pl. are similar to nouns of groups I (F) and II (for M/N).

Reinforced (strong) forms: m ă ne (1sg), t o be (2sg), s o be (3sg reflexive), j o non (3sg reduplicated M/N), joną (3sg F)- never cary a preposition.

The clitic (weak) pronouns in the accusative (direct object) are the following The elided pro-clitic forms include: m', t', s', l' (=lu/la), which occur in front of a vowel.

With imperative and gerund verb forms, the same clitics (except 1st/2nd pl.) are placed after the verb and hyphenated. In imperatives, the form ens (1pl) changes to -năs!, while us (2pl) changes to -vus!

The unstressed se can be reflexive or impersonal (passive), e.g. il se lua(t) - he rises (gets up), se sa(pt) - it is known (passive present). The pronoun se is not used in the imperative.

The strong pronouns in the dative (indirect object) are the following Alternative spellings include the popular: mī, tī, sī, leis; joi (> jei 3sg formal), joi(s) - formal you. Most of the given dative forms need the syntactical preposition  a  in certain environments. Mij, tij - usually in front of a vowel, or emphatically.

Reinforced (strong) forms: ilui /'ilu.i/ - to him, elei /'e.le.i/ - to her, n o uă /'nɔ.w:ə/ - to us, v o uă - to you never cary a preposition. In front of a vowel: ilui /'iluj/, elei /'elej/, n o ua or nobi /'nɔw.a ͜   / /noβj͜   /; v o ua or vobi.

The clitic (weak) pronouns in the dative (indirect object) are the following In front of a vowel, the clitic pronouns are hyphenated to the verb form, and mostly do not change (except for 1st/2nd pl., which become ni- and vi-).

The form le (le-) is exclusive to feminine gender, but the form li is also acceptable in any context. You can use Le when you talk about a person formally (regardless of gender/sex), e.g. Le don a si u ru /d a mei - I give to Mr./Mrs. ...

With imperative verbs, the same clitics (except 1st/2nd pl.) are placed after the verbal form and hyphenated. In imperatives, the form nă (1pl) changes to -ną!/nɑ̃/, while vă (2pl) changes to -vą! /ʋɑ̃/.

Usage: The clitic dative pronoun is obligatory in relation to the main verb, even if the indirect object is overtly stated (using a noun or a stressed pronoun). E.g. Le don a filjei - litt. I give-her - to the girl ...

The prepositional case of personal pronouns is identical to the dative case, except for the 3rd person sg, which is similar to the nominative (subject):

e.g. con jel /jel/ - with him, con ea/ja /'e.a/ or /ja/ (both can be used); con jeis - with them. Only a stressed form of prepositional pronouns exists.

Usage of stressed object pronouns

The stressed direct object pronouns are used either with or without the preposition a, according to a few rules:

1) the preposition a is not obligatory with pronoun forms - mnjé, tué, sué, other 3rd person forms in standard word order (after the verb), nor with forms nous, vous when used before the verb (inversion form)

2) the preposition a is obligatory with forms mnje /mɲə/, tûe /twə/, sûe /swə/, also all 3rd person forms when used in inverted word order (before the verb).

3) the preposition a is not used with reinforced pronouns măne, tobe, sobe, and is optional (emphatic) before 3rd person jonon/joną.

The unstressed DO pronoun replaces the direct object or a stressed pronoun, e.g.

Anna c a nta(t) a cançon. /kan'͡tsɔ̃(n)/ Anna is singing a song ( DO, F sg.)     >   Anna la canta. DO clitic pronoun, F sg. (la).

The unstressed DO pronoun is not used if the DO is overtly stated.

The stressed indirect object pronouns (dative) are used either with or without the preposition a, according to a few rules:

1) the preposition a is not obligatory with pronoun forms - mii, tii, sii, when used before the verb (inversion form) and immediately followed by the corresponding clitic pronoun (mii-mi, tii-ti, sii-si), or when used immediately after the conjugated verb (see examples).

2) the preposition a is obligatory with all strong dative pronouns (except for the reinforced forms) in standard word order (coming after the verb),

3) the preposition a is not used with reinforced pronouns ilui - to him, elei - to her, n o uă - to us, v o uă - to you all.

The unstressed dative pronoun is obligatory in relation to the main verb, whether the IO is overtly stated or not (by a pronoun or noun/adjective).

Examples:

Anna  mi  canta(t) a cançon (DO)  a mii (< IO). Anna is singing(-me*) a song [to me]. Double expression of the indirect object (the clitic mi is obligatory).

Anna  li  scrie(t) a cartą (DO)  a  Jonu (IO). Anna is writing(-him*) a letter [to Jon]. Clitic - li - to him is obligatory.

The preposition a is obligatory before an overt IO when not immediately following the verb. Confer:

Anna  li  canta(t) ( a )  Jonu  (< IO) a cançon (DO). Anna is singing (to him - to Jon) a song (DO). The preposition a is emphatic.

Combining unstressed object pronouns

The dative and accusative unstressed pronouns can be combined in front of after the conjugated verb, as to replace overtly stated objects.

There are rules about the order of combined clitic pronouns and the phonetic/orthographic modifications that occur in the combination.

1) If the DO pronoun is a third person (excluding impersonal se), the order of pronouns is IO - DO (dative - accusative), with phonetic modifications of IO pronouns: mi > mî, ti > tî, si > sî, le > lje, lis > els.

2) If the DO pronoun is a 1st or 2nd person (or impersonal se), the order of clitics depends on the persons involved (not the cases): impersonal se - 2nd person - 1st person - 3rd person (only two pronouns can combine).

Furtherly, certain IO and DO pronouns are made identical: mi, me > me; ti, te > te; si, se > se; li, le > le, and the change from lis to els (IO only) is kept.

Other clitic pronouns are kept as original. Elision of the vowel -e and -ă is mandatory before another vowel.

Examples: Anna  mi  canta(t)  a cançon  (DO). Anna is singing a song to me. Anna mî la  canta. /mə.la/ Anna is singing  it  to me.

The table illustrates all the possible combinations: * vă + ens - us to you = v'ens or ve'ns. **Se us - PASSIVE: (it) you to; no elision, alt. se vus

The combinations with 1st and 2nd person pronouns are avoided, since they tend to be ambiguous.

Example: Anna te nă presenta(t). Anna introduces you ("te") to us ("nă").

Anna te me presenta(t). Anna introduces you ("te") to me ("me"). (the verb indicates reciprocity).

Adverbial pronouns

Adverbial pronouns are used to replace a circumstantial part of a speech (attributed to the main S-V-O structure). They only have unstressed (weak) forms. Long prepositional phrases can be replaced by a monosyllabic form, avoiding the need for repetition.

En /ən/ - genitive/ablative -replaces circumstantial complements introduced by the prepositions from, of, about, or an indefinite or incomplete quantity (countable or uncountable - some of..., three of,...etc.)

Ho /o/ /u/ - direct object indefinite (acc.) - replaces a part of speech or a concrete term that represents the DO - in English most commonly it.

Hi /i/ - replaces a mentioned or known location ("there") or other circumstances.

The use of these pronouns is generally reserved for indefinite concepts (because personal pronouns indicate a definite term), and it is not obligatory.

They are pro-clitic, only in imperatives and gerunds used as enclitics.

The weak pronouns en and ho can be combined to replace two complements (parts of speech) at once (en  ho  =  it  of that,  it  from that, etc.).

An adverbial pronoun can be combined with a weak personal pronoun (object pronoun). * By a phonetic modification, els represents either the DO or IO plural (los, les, lis). Also: m', t', s' can represent either the DO or IO (sg.).

Example: il parla spre filja - he is talking about (the) girl. En parla. EN - about the girl (pronoun replacement).

il a parlat spre filja - he talked about the girl - N'ha parlat. N' = about the girl (pronoun replacement).

Vad a (la) ciutat. I am going to the city. Hi vad. I am going there (HI - to the city).

The pronoun hi can be written as y, only not in pronoun combinations: Hi vad/Y vad.

The pronouns hi and ho preceded by a vowel of the imperative verb become zi and zo:

V a î-zi! Go there!

The pronoun-verb compound Hi-a (y-a) means there is/there are. The negative form is: Nu-i-a/Nu-y-a, or reinforced by repetition: Hi nu-i-a.

Occasionally, a third pronoun is added to a two-pronoun combination. E.g.

Se le parla spre filja. It is being said to him/her about the girl (passive). Se l' en parla. EN = about the girl (pronoun replacement).

Possessive pronouns

In Lutanian, possessive pronouns or adjectives are definite determiners which indicate the possessor (sg. or plural) of an item or items (in English - my/mine, your(s), etc.)

As synthetic forms, true possessive pronouns exist only for the 1st and 2nd person sg. (my, your sg.) and the reflexive form of the 3rd person (self-form). For other persons, the possession is indicated by a personal pronoun in the dative case: a noi(s) - of/to us (our), a voi(s) - of/to you all, a lui - his, a lei - hers, a leis - theirs.

The synthetic possessives behave like adjectives with two themes (m/f), having mostly a regular declension. The stems (bases) for stressed possessive adjectives/pronouns are similar to clitic forms of object personal pronouns (accusative). For the subject form or the nominative the stems are: me-, te-, se-, nu-, vă- (M/N), va- (F). For the non-subject forms the stems are: me-, tu-, su-, nu-, vu- (M/N), va- (F).

If the ending attached to the stem is identical to the final vowel (-u-, -a-) of the stem, a -j- /j/ is inserted between the two (except: when it is double -e-, a -l- is inserted). If the ending attached to the stem is -Ø (possible for 1st/2nd pl. nu-, vă-), a -j is placed at the end of the stem (M - nuj, văj).

The stressed possessive pronouns/adjectives are used in post-position to the noun: amic meu /'mew/ - amia mea /'me.a/ my friend (M/F).

The definite article is not necessary when the item in possession is stated, but it is used when the item in possession is "hidden": e.g. amic meu - el meu, amia mea -  a  mea, templu meu (N) - lu meu; amios/templos meos - los meos, amies meles - les meles.

Pronouns declension - item in singular

There are three alternative ways to form the feminine accusative pronoun:

- replace the ending -a with nasal -ą on the thematic forms (mea → meą)

- add the ending -a or nasal -ą (marked) on the base of the masculine animate accusative, only for: meuną, tuoną (tôną), suoną (sôną).

Pronouns declension - item in plural

Pronouns with the definite article appear independently of the referent noun.

Pronouns declension with suffiix definite article - oblique cases:

There is a possibility to use short, (pro-)clitic possessive pronouns. Their forms mainly consist of a consonantic stem and a personal ending. No other type of determiner can be used together with clitic possessive pronouns. The enclitic pronouns are invariable. In front of a vowel (liaison context) all the nominative and oblique forms of the singular can be replaced with mel- /məl ͜   /.

§4. Lutanian verbs

Lutanian verbs

Lutanian verbs may express the category of

1) tense - present, past and future

2) mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)

3) voice  (active and passive)

4) aspect (imperfective, perfective or future - partially)

The conjugated forms have personal endings (person 1-2-3 number sg./pl.)

The nominal forms are - the infinitive, participle and gerund.

The verbs are divided into four groups or conjugations based on the theme vowels used in the present indicative: a, e and i (unlike the nouns system).

Group I: -a- /a/, group II: -e- /ə/, stressed /ɛ/ (short), /e:/ - long, group III: athematic verbs; group IV: -i-.

Group III borrows vowels from other groups or just the vowel is omitted.

Typical structure of a verb form is:

2* - may be omitted.

A typical word used as a verb ends in part 3 (termination). When used as a nominal (e.g. past participle - adjective) the form could possibly have a 4th part (indication of gender/number or case).

The significance of thematic vowels (position 2): the vowel -a- indicates a grammatically imperfective aspect, while -i- indicates a perfective or future aspect.

The semantic part plays an important role, so the verb dormí (to sleep) can be imperfective in the present tense.

Changing the typical vowel or stress on the different parts can indicate a tense/aspect change, e.g. :

I  a → e present indicative → present subjunctive

present  indicative → pres. subjunctive and/or  imperfect indicative

II e → ea, ia /ja/

IV i → ia, ie (word internally, word finally)

Due to phonetic rules these alternations are not fully visible in most verbs.

Through sound changes, the usual endings found in nouns are re-used in verbs: -es, -is (2nd person sg. present).

E.g. Lat. cantas → ↑*cantăs /əs/ → cantes - you are singing

Lat. quod cantes → ↑ că cantis - that you sing

Representative forms of verbs

Certain verb forms can be homographic and/or homophonous with different meanings (depending on stress).

For regular verbs, a verb root + thematic vowel (stressed) represents the infinitive, while a stressed root and an unstressed thematic vowel marks the present indicative (3rd person singular).

cantà /kan'ta:/ - to sing        il canta /'ka:n.ta/ - he is singing

monè /mo'ne:/ - to warn      il mone /'mo:nə/ - he is warning

dormí /dor'mi:/ - to sleep      il dormi /'do:r.mi/ - he is sleeping

Both of these forms can serve as representative forms. Regular group III verbs are usually presented with the vowel -e:

currè /kur're:/ - to run           il curre /'kur:ə/ - he is running

scriè /skri.'e:/ - to write         il scrie /'skri.ə/ - he is writing

There are also irregular infinitives with root stress and an added element (formant) -ua /wa/ or -e(a) /ja/, where -a is a floating syntactic element which can also be used as a preposition:

veua /'ʋe.w:a/ - to see (II), from a root *ved + -a (with sound change - veu̯)

creua /'kre.w:a/ - to believe (III), from a root *cred + -a (with sound change - creu̯)

tinea /'tĩ:n.ja/ - to (with)hold (III), from tin- or ten- + -e (infl. by Latin tenēre) + -a

Many other verbs have acquired these infinitive endings by analogy (mostly -ua).

The auxilliary verbs to be and to have:

esse(a) /'es:ə/, /'esja/ - to be, aure(a) /'aw.rə/ /'awrja/, /'or.ja/ - to have

The present indicative

The present indicative is formed from the present stem (root + theme vowel a, e, i) and personal endings: -Ø, -s, -(t), -me(s), -te(s), -u(t). The stress in on the last vowel of the root, except in 1/2pl where it falls on the theme vowel.*

Due to phonetic changes, the resulting forms are not straightforward.

- The stressed theme vowel in 1pl, 2pl (we, you all) has been levelled to -ai- / 'ɛ/ in all groups (originally from conjugation II), the vowel -i- is kept in front of stressed /'ɛ/ as a semivowel /j/: -a-, -e- → -ai- / 'ɛ/, -i- → -iai-  / 'jɛ/: Lat. cantamus → cantaime(s) /kan'tɛ̯m(ə)[z ͜   ]/

- The theme vowel -a- in front of -s- neutralizes to /ə/ (cantăs → cantes), and disappears in 1sg and in front of another stressed vowel (1/2 pl: [a] → ai)

The final consonants -t, -s are used for the purpose of liaison (optional, usually not added if preposition a(d) follows).

The most prominent forms are 1pl/2pl with stressed short -(i)ai- /'(j)ɛ̯/,  in front of -me, -te, equalized in all conjugations (thematic -i- stays as a semivowel).

Using the past participle in the present tense (1st person sg.)

The 1st person sg. of the present tense may have endings that show aspect, the general ending is -Ø.

1st conjugation: -Ø or -u (phonologically induced), e.g. jo cant(u), jo aflu (I think, I consider), jo parl(u) - I speak.

2nd conjugation: the present stem has a thematic vowel -e that acts like an e-yod.

Pattern A: It can be omitted (jo mon - I am warning) or turned into -c-/-g-: jo monc(u) /monk(u)/ - I warn (perfective or iterative). -c /k/ can be added to roots ending in -r-, -n-, -l-, preceded by a vowel.

Pattern B: Certain verbs can use the Past Participle (if it ends in -s) as a present tense (perfective) form of the 1st person sg. Example: manè - to stay, remain (II).

Jo mans(u) - I stay ... Jo man(-Ø) - I am staying   (perfective /imperfective present)

You can basically add -s to the verb root, or in some cases (using von Wahl rules) transform the stem by replacing the last consonant (-d-, -t-, -lg-) into -s-.

3rd conjugation A: the general 1sg ending -Ø: jo curr - I am running. B: Verbs which have a past participle ending in -s may use it as a present tense perfective form (for 1sg and 3pl).

E.g. currè - to run - jo currs(u) /ei currs(ut) - I run/they run (entirely) ...   Jo curr(u) /Ei curru(t)- I am running/they are running.

The derivatives of the irregular verb to give (daua) have the form in -s only for 3 pl: perdè - jo perd(u) (I lose), ei perdu(t)/ ei pers - they lose.

The formal 3pl ending (optional) -on must be added on an -s- type (past participle) stem of most verbs, and the -s- is duplicated (except if the previous consonant is double):

e.g. jo perd, ei persson - I lose/they lose, jo vend, ei vensson - I sell/they sell.

The ending -on can be added directly to the stem ending in -r(r)-, -m-, -n-, -ll-, -s(s)- (but not -l-; turns to -ls-): e.g. jo curr(u), ei curron (currson) - to run, ei continon (they withhold).

4th conjugation: the general ending is -Ø. -c /k/ can be added to roots ending in -r-, -n-, -l-, preceded by a vowel. The ending -esc can be added to monosyllabic (mostly nominal) roots in 1sg. Certain verbs with roots ending in -t-, -d-, preceded by -r-, -l-, -n- can have an -s ending in 1sg.

E.g. vení - jo venc (to come), uní - jo unesc (to unite), partí - jo part/pars (I leave), sentí - jo sent/sens - I feel.

The ending -esc /'e̯sk/, /'ɛ̯sk/ is a phonological helping tool for the present tense, only in 1sg. E.g. analizà - jo analizesc (I), ardè - to burn - jo ars, jo ardesc (II).

Certain verbs have already incorporated -sc in the form: creixè, III /kre(j)'ʃe:/ - jo creix, creisc, cresc (ei → e) - ti creixes (to grow), naua, III (stem na-) → nasc or naix (from Lat. [g]nascor).

The ending -isc /'i̯sk/ is more rarely used (only in 1sg), as it has stronger semantic sense of perfectiveness or future aspect. It is routinely used in the verb finí - to finish, jo finisc (I finish).

*** Note: The present indicative is an unmarked tense, so the endings in forms with root stress are not obligatory (except -a, neither in pronunciation nor in writing).

The 2nd person sg. final -s is considered obligatory in the present indicative, but not in any other, marked tense. Examples: ti cantes/cants, ti perdes / perds /'pɛ̯r(d)s/ you sing, you lose. The 1pl/2pl endings are obligatory in the present indicative, so for example:

- I: jo pens(u), ti penses, il pensa(t), ni pensaime(s), vi pensaite(s), ei pens(au[t])

- IV: jo part/pars, ti partis/parts, il part(it), ni partiaime(s), vi partiaite(s), ei part(iu[t])

Vocalic stems and syllable loss:

Verbs in which you get a root ending in a vowel from the infinitive form in -ua, -ea, are usually ones with a syllable loss compared to the Latin etymon.

E.g. from Latin facĕre, vivĕre, sapĕre, credĕre, vedēre.

Faua, III - to do, stem fa-: jo fac, ti fas, il fa(t), ni faime, vi faite, ei fau (fajju). Viua, III - to live, stem vi-: jo vif, ti vius/vifs, il vie(t)/vit, ni viiaime, vi viiaite, ei viiu(t). Savè, III - to know, stem sa(*): jo sau/sap, ti sà(p)s, il sa(pt), ni savaime, vi savaite, ei sajju(t)/sau(t). Creua, III - to believe, stem cre(jj)-: jo creu, ti crés (creus), il cré(gt), ni crejjaime, vi crejjaite, ei crejju(t)/creu(t)).    Veua, II - to see, stem ve(jj)-: jo veu, ti vés (veus), il vé(gt), ni vejjaime, vi vejjaite, ei vejjeu*/veu(t) (*irregular stress)

The irregular verb to be has three conjugations in the present tense - strong (essence form, marked), regular or copular and auxilliary.

The strong form has the stem/root és(s), always stressed and without thematic vowels.

The irregular forms esmi, esti (1/2 sg) were influenced by personal pronouns (dative mi, ti) and also by the plural form este(s) (2pl, from Lat. estis).

* In front of a vowel. The copular form săm (I am) requires a subject or a subject pronoun, it can be pro-clitic or enclitic. E.g.

Esmi Andreu. = Jo săm Andreu. - I am Andrew. Esmi contănt(a). = Contănt(a) săm. - I am satisfied (M/F).

The negative forms are built by adding the prefix ni- to strong forms or adding the particle nu in front of other forms. E.g. jo niesmi /'nj̯e̯s.mi/ - nu săm - I am not.

The irregular verb to have has two conjugations in the present tense - full (or strong form), and auxilliary.

The theme vowel /ɛ/ appears only when it is stress, otherwise a syllable is dropped. So there are two types of stems in the conjugation: root stressed stem a-, and theme stressed avai- /a.'ʋɛ/. * In front of a vowel. The strong monosyllabic forms are stressed. ** Irregular stress in aveu(t) /a.'ʋew/ - they have.

The negative forms are built by adding the particle nu in front of a conjugated form, which should always start with a glide /j/: nu jam /nu.'jam/ - I don't have.

Other three irregular verbs are daua - to give, stea - to stay and iddua - to go.

In the present indicative:

* The form don(u) is borrowed from the verb donà - to donate (I). Dec - I give /dɛk/ comes from dă- + -c. The forms of the present tense verb iddua can be replaced by vaua (to march, to go): jo vad/vau, ti vas/vaus, il va([u]t), ni vaime/jaime, vi vaite/jaite, ei vau(t).

The past participles

The past participles can be used to form compound verbal tenses:

- with auxilliary to have (aure) - compound past (active),

- with auxilliary to be (esse) - passive present.

The PP's in a verbal active form are invariable (with ending -Ø), e.g. am cantàt - I have sung/I sang.

Many PP's can be used as adjectives. As adjectives or as a part of a passive verbal form, they change for gender, number and case (like adjectives with two themes).

The invariable form PP then serves as a M sg. basic form of the adjective -

- (jest) încantat (-Ø) / încantada - he/she is thrilled (M/F).

- (e)scrit / (e)scrista (escriida) /əskri'i:ða/ - written (M/F)

- pers / persa - lost (M/F)

Morphology

Regular past participles are formed from the verbal root, a stressed thematic vowel (only a/i) and final -t:

root + àt: group I: cantàt - PP sung, pensàt - PP thought, demonstràt - PP shown

root + ít: many verbs from groups II - III and all group IV verbs: monít - PP warned (II), finít - finished (IV), dormít - slept (IV).

Variable, adjectival and predicate forms have possible endings added to the base form (...-t-Ø) to show gender, number and case. Consonant and vowel sound changes may occur, e.g.

cantat(e)/cantatu (cantau, cantou), cantada, cantaus (cantous), cantates

finit(u)/finíu, finite (finíe), fini(s)os (finius), finites

Irregular past participles can be formed in four ways:

1) verb root + -s (e.g.) currè (III) to run - PP currs (having run), manè (II) - to stay, PP mans - stayed

2) verb root with the final consonant replaced by -s (following de Wahl rules): e.g. perdè - to lose - PP pers (lost)

3) verb root + -t e.g. diua - to say - PP dit - said, recíua - to receive - PP rece(p)t - received, murí - to die - PP môrt /mwort/ (dead), scriè - to write - PP scrit - written, capè - to catch - PP capt (caught), faua - PP fat (done), naua - PP nat (born)

4) verb root + -ut: a regularization alternative for all irregular participles: e.g. aure (stem av-) - to have - PP avut (had), savè - to know - saút - known, diua - diut, currè - currut etc.

Some participles can be formed in more than one way, as already shown.

Every verb can have a (main or alternative) -t-type participle, for s-participles, just add a -t or -ut (if the form has a consonant cluster). E.g. currsut, mansut.

Some verbs build an s-type past participle with an addition of final -t (...-s-t), e.g.

querrè - PP quest - to inquire, to require; veua - PP vist, veut - to see

Consonant and vowel sound changes may occur in the adjectival forms of the PP's in -ut, e.g.

currsut(e), currsutu/currsú, currsuda, currsúos/currsús, currsudes/currsú(e)s

diut(e), diutu/dióu/diú, diuda, diúos (diús, dióus), diudes

dit(e), dita, ditos, dites

The PP of the irregular verb to be (esse) uses a different stem (fu-): esse - PP fus(t) - to be/been

The imperfect indicative

The imperfect indicative tense is used to express actions or states that have lasted for some time in the past (including habits), but are no longer necessarily occuring. In English it corresponds to the construction used to + verb or to the past continuous.

The imperfect indicative is formed from the present stem (root + theme vowel) and typical endings: (j)am, (j)ăs* (> îs), (j)a(t), (j)áme, (j)áte, (j)au.

E.g. cant a jam /kan'ta̯.jam/- I used to sing, cantaîs - you used to sing

By the influence of the original thematic vowel -a- (of the 1st group) an a-harmonic pattern in singular imperfect indicative has spread to all conjugations: e.g. IV - dormiajam /dorm'ja.jam/ - I used to sleep, dormiéis/dormíis - you used to sleep.

In singular imperfect conjugation, the theme vowel -a- influenced all verb groups and created -a- harmony on the stressed theme vowel:

I: cant-a- > canta-, II: mon-e > -eà- III: curr-Ø > -ua-, IV: dorm-i- > -ià- (1 and 3sg)

In 2sg, e-harmony is present in II/IV, and optionally III: currúis - curreis

In the plural, the unstressed theme vowel was reduced: a > a /a/; e, i > i /j/.

In popular usage, the forms are shortened: I: cantám, cantás/cantaîs, cantá(it), cantáme, cantáte, cantáu.

In other groups: 1/3 sg: moneá(m), curruá(m), dormiá(m), 3pl: moníu, curríu, dormíu.

Irregular verbs in the imperfect tense

The verb to be is the only fully irregular verb in the imperfect. It uses a rhotic, present stem er- (from ess-), and typical endings without iotacization,

jo eram (erjam), ti erăs/erjes/jers, il era(t), ni eráme, vi eráte, ei erau /eron - I used to be, etc.

The verb to have (aure) has a regular 2nd group conjugation with the stem av(e)- in sg. and av(i)- in pl. (from au-):

jo aveajam, ti avejes, il aveaja(t), ni aviáme, vi aviáte, ei aveáu /aviáu - I used to have, etc.

The forms can be shortened in popular usage, and more so in the negative (nu) form: jo aveám/abjám, ti aveis, il aveá(t)/abjá(t).

The verb to have also has a set of auxiliary (clitic) imperfect forms, used to build a compound past tense (by some speakers used as pre-past tense, relative to another past action).

Clitic imperfect forms of to have are the following: sg. im, (e)is, i/o (eit);  pl. ome (oms), ute (ots), i (jut). The forms in parentheses are used before a vowel.

The forms im /im/ comes from aveam (> eam > em > im). The forms with o- (or u-) come from a stressed stem au-. The forms im, i (1,3) are influenced by aveis > is (2sg). The 3sg forms i and o are euphonical alternatives, but o (eit, oit) is also used in the subjunctive mood, and frequently in negation (nu-o).

Example: Bruno a cantàt. Bruno has been singing (has sung).

Bruno i cantàt. Bruno had been singing. IL o cantàt/nu-o cantàt. He had (not) been singing.

The three irregular verbs daua - to give, stea - to stay and iddua - to go have identical patterns for the imperfect tense (monosyllabic stem + regular endings): jo d a jam, ti daîs (to give); jo st a jam (to stand), jo z a jam (to go). In the verb iddua, -dd- > -z- and the initial unstressed i- is lost.

In the subgroup of vocalic present stem verbs (like faua, veua), some of them will have to restore the original stem-final consonant for the imperfect. There are about three patterns:

(1) Some verbs take the usual regular pattern, but with the insertion of an etymological consonant (or cluster) between the stem and the ending: savé - sapj a jam, sapj e is (to know), diua - disi a jam, dis e is (to tell).

(2) Verbs like: faua - to do: jo f a jam, ti fejes /'fe:.jəs/, il faja(t), ni fajáme, ..., ei fajau(t). E-harmony is given in 2sg. -ejes.

(3): Verbs like veua - to see: jo v e uam, ti vez e is, ili vez e it, ni vezjáme,... The same model for: creua (crez-) - to believe, leua (lez-) - to read, etc.

The simple perfect tense

The simple perfect is a synthetic tense that is entirely replaceable by the compound past tense in everyday speech. It can be used for actions that occured at a specific time in the past (like the English Past Simple).

E.g. giestre am cantàt. [compound past]             Giestre cantaî. [simple perfect]   >> I sang yesterday.

Morphology

The perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem and personal endings: -i, (i)st, -(t), -(i)(s)me, (i)ste, -ur(ut)/-(j)er(u/t).

There are four types of perfect stems (bases for conjugation).

(1) The perfect stem identical to the present stem (verb root + original theme vowel a, i, rarely e). It occurs regularly for  verbs of groups I and IV (thematic -a-, -i-), and verby rarely in group II (-e-). E.g. cant-a- (I), dorm-i- (IV), del-e- (II) (to destroy).

(2) The u-stem: verb root + -u-. Found in group II verbs. It can be used as an alternative perfect stem for many verbs (except group I). E.g. monè, II - pf. stem mon-u- (to warn), aure, II, pf. stem avu- (to have), currè, III, pf. stem curr-u- (to run).

(3) The s-stem. Verbs of groups II / III which have a past participle ending in -s, can use it as a perfect stem. E.g. currè, III - pf. stem currs- (to run), manè, III - pf. stem mans- (to stay).

(4) Bare or Ø-stems. Only the verbal root is used as a perfect stem (the base to which you add personal endings). Example: curr- (to run). These bare stems can also be different from the verbal root in the present tense (vocalic alternation or a new, suppletive stem). E.g. savè - pf. stem sup- (to know), esse - pf. stem fu- (to be).

Many verbs can alternatively form the perfect tense in more than one way. Example: three different stems (2, 3 and 4) given for the root curr- (to  run).

There are three patterns of perfect tense personal endings.

1st paradigm (î-type, semi-vocalic -i /j/) This pattern is used for regular verbs of groups I and IV and other with stem (1). The stems for the present and the perfect are identical.

The stress is on the vowel of the stem (part 2 of the verb) which makes a diphthong with semi-vocalic  -i- /j/. The -i- can be erased (alternative form).

Note: 2sg form: before -st-, -i- can be deleted (àst/íst/ùst). If not, it makes the sound /ɛ/ when combined with -a- (orthography: -ai- = è).

There is a pattern of levelling 3pl ending to -(j)er(u/t), originally belonging to group II of verbs.

2nd paradigm (stressed -í type /i/), 3rd paradigm (unstressed -i /i/) * Unstressed ending.

The paradigms differ in the 1st person sg., and in the 3rd persons sg./pl. S-stem is typically only used in 2sg and ½ pl (for some verbs in all persons).

Certain verbs change the root vowel to obtain a perfect stem (in the direction a > e > i), without a specific vowel being added to the root.

E.g. veua - present root v e d-*, perfect root v is - (by von Wahl rules), faua - present root fa[c]-*, perfect root fe[c*]-, fes - /z/, fis /s/, /z/.

They all use the paradigm 3 of the perfect conjugation.

E.g. veua (to see) - jo visi, tu vesist (visist), il vise, ni vesime/visime(s), vi v(is)íste(s), ei visier(u/t) - I saw...; faua (to do) - jo fis(i), ti fesist (fisist), il fese/fise, ni f e s í me/ fi síme, vi f(is)íste(s), ei fi ser/f e ser - I did,...; savè (to know) - jo s u p(i), ti supist, il supe/sepe, ni sup i me, vi sup i ste, ei s e per; leua (to read) -jo le(u)í, l i (s/i)/lí, tu l ii st, il l i se/l e se/liù(t), ni liime(s), vi liiste(s), ei lier/li(u)r.

Sometimes the forms of the perfect can be very similar or even identical to the present subjunctive or present indicative tense (the perfective form). In those cases the context is crucial (adverbial markers of time), or we just use the compound past form. E.g. jo currs (I run, perfective present), că jo c u rrsi - that I run (present subjunctive), jo c u rrsi / il c u rrse - I/he ran (the simple perfect).

In literature and speech, the weak ending -e is optional, but -i is kept for the 1st person sg.

In regular verbs of I and IV conjugations, the 3rd person sg. of the perfect tense is identical to the past participle (when optional final -t is used):e.g. jo am cantàt (I have sung), il a cantàt - he has sung, il cantà(t) - he sang.

The verb to be (esse) has a suppletive perfect tense stem (fu-), and uses paradigm 3 endings: jo fuí/fui, ti fuíst (fus[t], f u is), il fu è (t), fut, ni fuíme (fume, fusme), vi fuíste (fuste), ei fu e r(u/t) (fur)

The verb to have (aure) has a u-type stem, in the perfect avu-, and exactly the same perfect endings as the verb to be: jo avuí/avui, ti avuíst (avus[t], avuis), il avuè(t), avut, ni avuíme (avume, avusme), vi avuiste (avuste), ei avuer(u/t) (avur).

The verb to go (iddua) uses the same perfect tense forms as the verb to be (esse), by semantic extension.

The verbs daua and stea (to give, to stand) have alternative forms: jo dii, dădui, ty diist, dăduis(t), il dăde(t), ni diime, dăduime, vi diiste (dăduiste), ei dădur (to give); jo stetti, stădui, ty stest, stăduis(t), il stett(et)/stitt, ni stiime, stăduime, vi steste (stăduiste), ei stteter/st i ttur (to stand).

The pluperfect tense

The synthetic pluperfect tense is used to denote actions that happened before another past action. The equivalent tense in English is the past perfect. It can also be formed as a compound tense (more often) using the auxiliary verb to be in the imperfect indicative form and an invariable past participle.

Forming - the pluperfect tense is formed from the perfect stem, with the augment -(i)ss- and unstressed personal endings: -i, -es, -e(t), -ems, -ets, -iu(t). The stress is on the final vowel of the perfect stem (a or i) or on the inserted vowel -i- before -ss-. The -i- before the -ss- augment is inserted after perfect stems ending in -Ø, -s or -u-.

Example: il cant a sse(t) - he had sung, il monuísse - he had warned, il curr(s)ísse - he had run, il dormisse/dormiisse - he had slept, ty fesisses / fisisses - you had done, ni finissems - we had finished.

The irregular verbs form their pluperfect tense as the regular ones: daua (to give) - il dasse*/desse*, stea (to stand) - il stasse/stesse, iddua (to go) - il isse, esse (to be) - il fuisse, aure (to have) - il avuisse.

Irregularities: for all the perfect stems ending in a vowel, there is an alternative form without the insertion of stressed -i- before -ss-: il mon u sse, il curr u sse, f u sse, av u sse, etc.

For the compounds of the verb daua/stea: the substems -de(ss)-/-ste(ss)- or a regular root + -íss- is acceptable: il perdesse / perdisse- he had lost, il restesse/restisse - he had stayed.

The future indicative tense

A future action can be implied by using the present tense or the present subjunctive, e.g. cănd ("when") + present subjunctive.

In Lutanian, the future indicative is expressed with the auxiliary verb v o ua - will and the infinitive (non-prepositional) of the main verb.

The verb voua, III also has a full form meaning to want. There are two main conjugations for this verb in the PRESENT tense, full or strong form, and the auxiliary form. Present tense forms of voua. *Irregular stress.

The auxiliary verb will is couple with an infinitive, without prepositions.

E.g. jo (nu) vuj cantà - I will (not) sing. Marc nu vud auzí (IV) - Marc will not hear.

The future tense cannot have a prepositional infinitive. The infinitives in -ua, -ea usually lose the final element -ua or the -a from -ea (leaving unstressed -e). To all roots ending in a consonant, an unstressed -e is added.

E.g. il nu vu vé /ʋe:/. He will not see. Anna nu ho vu fa / dí. Anna will not do it (tell it). Some infinitive forms or groups II, III can be regularized in the future tense; by taking stressed infinitive endings -è or -í, which also enables aspect change (imperfective, stative > e, perfective > i). E.g. fugè/fugí - to escape, run away, tenè / măntení - to (with)hold, contain, scriè/scrií - to write, etc.

Irregular verbs

The verb to be (esse) has a special synthetic form for the future indicative, in addition to regular formations like: vuj (j)esse - I will be.

It uses a special, perfective stem bu[d]- (always stressed): jo budu/b u dăm, ti budes, il bude(t), ni budme(s), vi bute(s), ei budu(t) (I will be, you will be, etc.)

A special verb - fi /fi:/ or fiè - to become - is of perfective aspect, and frequently has a future reference when used in the present tense.

The present tense forms are regular, but they can frequently be translated as: will become or will be (within context).

jo fic, ti fies, il fi(e)t (fit), ni fiaime, vi fiaite, ei fiu(t). Other verbs that can replace voua and fi are regular: dorí (to want - jo doresc), devení (to become - jo devenc).

The conditional and relative future tense

The conditional tense is usually used in a dependent clause, with the other, main clause, explaining a possible result of the condition given.

A conditional action may be expressed by a compound form, consisting of the synthetic future tense of the verb to be followed by an infinitive.

The auxiliary verb can be used in its full form or the clitic form: jo bum, ti bus, il bu(t), ni bume (bums), vi bute (buts), ei bu(t). Also, an invariable form bu can be used (in liaison: sg. and pl. bum, bus, but).

Example: il bude/bu cantà - he would sing (not certain if he will). This form is also used in polite requests with the meaning of would like to.

The past conditional is formed by replacing the infinitive by a past participle: il bude cantàt - he would have sung. This compound verb form is also used as a relative tense that involves a relative future action (at a point in time, e.g. past in the future or a future in the past)

To express an opinion or presumption on behalf of the speaker, we use the invariable pro-clitic element ar and the infinitive (equivalent to should + verb). E.g. Ea ar cantà - she should sing. Past form or relative reference point involves the past participle:

Ea ar cantàt - she should have sung / she will have sung.

The subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is used to express a hypothetic action which may be possible or impossible, unevidenced, conditioned or alike.

The subjunctive can be used to talk about future time, and also in reported speech and indirect imperatives. It is usually a part of a dependent clause, and introduced by conjunctions like că (liaison qu') - that, să, dă - so that (intention), ut (generic conjunction), scă(l) - if (conditional), cănd - when (referring to future). Că can also be used with the present indicative.

Present subjunctive verb form

The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem with a typical change of the (thematic) vowel on position 2 of the verb (root + vowel), compared to the indicative mood.

E.g. il canta(t) /a/ - he sings            qu'il cante(t) /ə/ - that he sings

A regular change should be: a → e (group I);    e, i, -Ø → -a- (II-IV).

However, due to strong influence of the original (indicative) vowels -e- and -i-, these changes are only partially visible (mostly in 3rd person subjunctive forms).

The present subjunctive verb form includes the following modifications (and vocalic shifts):

(1) The personal endings for 1sg / 2sg of the subjunctive present (I, you) are -i, -is (perfective) in all conjugations (shift: ă > e > i[s]).

E.g. că jo c a nti - that I sing (I: cantă + -i > cantei > cantii > canti), că jo m o nqui / moni - that I warn (mone > monc- + -i), că jo curri/currsi (III: curr(s)- + -i), că jo d o rmi(i) - that I sleep (dormi- + -i), că ti d o rmiis/d o rmies (from Lat. dormias).

(2) The forms for the 1st and 2nd person plural of the present subjunctive and indicative are identical (in regular verbs). E.g. ni cantaime - we sing;  că (ni) cantaime - that we sing.

(3) The personal endings for the 3rd person sg./pl. the subjunctive present are mostly regular, with a few patterns:

- the "clean" form (I and III):  că cante(u)- that he sings/they sing (I),  că curra(u) - that he runs/they run (III)

- group III sg./pl. in -ua/-au or -ua/-u: qu'il scriua - that he writes, qu'ei scr i au/scriu - that they write,

- group II and IV retain original vowels e, i which make a diphthong with the subjunctive ending: qu'il monea /-ja/ - that he warns, qu'ei moneau /-jaw/- that they warn, qu'il dormie /-jə/ - that he sleeps, qu'ei dormiau /-jaw/.

Vocalic stem verbs:

Verbs with vowel-final root and the infinitive form in -ua, -ea, are usually ones with a syllable loss compared to the Latin etymon (like veua, faua).

The infinitive of those verbs is identical to the 3rd person sg. present subjunctive: qu'il v e ua - that he sees.

Some of these verbs restore an original stem final consonant for the 1st person sg. of the present subjunctive only (with certain sound change).

- 1sg/2sg pattern -zi/-is (-us): că jo vezi - that I see (from ved- + -i), că ti veis/veus - that you see

- 1pl/2pl pattern identical to the indicative: că ni vejjaime - that we see.

- 3 sg/pl: -ua/-au: qu'il veua, qu'ei veau (veu) - that he sees/ they see.

For all vocalic type stems, the ending -us (2sg) is a possible alternative for the present subjunctive and the present indicative.

Irregular verbs

The verb to be (esse) forms the present subjunctive with the pattern of group IV verbs, and the stem si- (from [e]ss-).

Compare: ni saime - we are           că ni siaime /sjɛm/ - that we are (subjunctive).

To be - The forms 1pl and 2pl are not identical to the indicative, like in regular verbs.

The verb to have (aure) has a present subjunctive stem av-. * Irregular stress (on the ending).

Irregularities of form (1st person sg.)

Some verbs can form the 1st person sg. subjunctive present tense in a perfective sense by having: the past participle stem (ending in -s) + -i or 1st person sg. indicative present (in -c) + -i:

că jo curri/ currsi (III) - that I run (through) (perfective -s-), că jo moni / monqui (II) - that I warn (perfective in -c).

This pattern (-si, -qui) is not extended to other persons - că ti monis, curris - that you warn or run.

Some verbs have a stem vowel shift  (to a perfective form a > e > i) in the 1st person sg. of the present subjunctive:

faua - to do - că jo fezi (fisi) - that I do, că ti feis (faîs), qu'il faua; qu'ei feu /few/, fau (feu - immitation of group I verb due to a stressed a → e)

The present subjunctive of the three irregular verbs (daua, stea, iddua) are the following:

Usage: The subjunctive is used to modify the general idea of the verb by including the speaker's attitude towards the verb. It can express a condition, purpose, result, future time or indirect speech.

In strict grammar, it is used independently for prohibitions (negative commands) and optative, possibility or concession (in the present tense).

Past subjunctive

The synthetic verbal form used as past subjunctive is identical to the pluperfect indicative conjugation. It is always preceded by a type of subjunctive introducing particle or conjuction (că, să, dă, scăl etc.).

It is used as a relative tense:

- in context of past actions - same usage as in the present tense (it can also refer to the future of the past or the past of the past)

- in context of a present action - to denote an already impossible action or state (with the particle/conjunction să as an independent form or in a dependent clause).

Examples: si-o finisse - if only it [had] finished/if only it would finish (impossible).

Anna a quest qu'o finisse - Anna (has) requested it to be finished. (indefinite pronoun ho).

The imperative mood

The imperative mood is used to issue commands directly to the 2nd person (sg. or pl.) To convey the idea of an imperative towards other persons (1st and 3rd) and for negative imperatives we will use the subjunctive mood.

Forming: In regular verbs, the imperative towards the 2nd person sg. is identical to the 3rd person sg. form of the present indicative (stressed stem + theme vowel). The personal pronoun is not used, except for contrastive purposes. E.g. ( tí ) canta! Sing! dormi! Sleep! mone! warn! cré! believe! fa! Do!

The basic (neutral) imperative form of the 2nd person plural is obtained by merging the verb root, stressed theme vowel + semivocalic -i-. /j/ (exc. group II -ai-) and the personal ending -te. 3rd group verbs borrow the pattern from 4th group verbs.

The verbs with vocalic stems (like creua) will have the plural imperative identical to the present indicative 2nd person pl. form. Stems in -a- may take the pattern of 1st conjugation: Cantaîte! (You all do) sing! Dormiite! Sleep! Curriite! Run! Monaite! (Do) warn! Crejjaite! Believe! Faîte! Do!

Polite imperative

The polite imperative is used with all persons to issue a command in a considerate way. It is not used for formal address, but it implies a polite request (a plea) without using additional words like please. In regular verbs, the polite imperative to 2nd person sg. has the personal ending -i, in the 4th group -ii (similar to present subjunctive, but without final -s). Canti! Dormii! Moni! Curri! Faj! Do!

The verbs with vocalic stems (like creua) will have the polite imperative identical to the present subjunctive 1st person sg. form, e.g. crezi! Believe! vezi! See! Look!

The polite imperative form of the 2nd person plural is obtained from the basic imperative by changing the stressed vowel in position 2 of the verb to: I/III -ai-, IV -iai-, II -ii-. Cantaite! Faite! Dormiaite! Curraite! Moniite!

The verbs with vocalic stems (like creua) will have the plural polite imperative with the perfect stem and the ending -ite! Vis i te! Look! See! Crezu i te! Believe! Fes i te! Do!

Using formal address always requires a polite imperative form of the 2nd person plural (Vy): cantaite, Us prec! Sing, please (Sir/Madam)!

Using additional words to convey a plea is not excluded.

In some regions, the polite forms of formal address imperatives are constructed taking the base of the 3rd person plural present indicative (I, II) or the present subjunctive (III, IV and vocalic stems) and adding the personal ending -te, with stress on the penultimate (diphthong) syllable: Cant a ute! Dormi a ute! Curr a ute! Mon e ute! Crejj a ute! F e ute!

Negative imperative

The negative imperative is represented by an isolated present subjunctive form of a negated verb. Nu cantis! Do not sing! (sg.) Nu cantaite! Do not sing! (pl. and formal). Informal usage of the singular number negative imperative includes clipping of final -s: Nu canti(s)!

Public prohibitions

In general public prohibitions (of neutral tone), a long infinitive ending in -re is used after the negative particle nu: nu fumare! Do not smoke!

Usage of clitic pronouns

Clitic personal pronouns and adverbial pronouns are placed after affirmative imperative forms (as enclitics), but directly before the verbal form in negative imperatives (after the particle nu. Example: Mone-los! Warn them! Canta-mi! Sing to me! Di-m'ho! Tell it to me (indefinite pronoun ho). The negative form is, for example: Nu mi cantis!

Irregular verbs

The verbs to be and to have generally use isolated forms of the present subjunctive for the imperative mood. In the affirmative form, there are alternatives taken from the indicative mood conjugation. All the given forms (except those in es-) can be used also in the negative sense with the particle nu: nu sii! - don't be!

The verbs to give, to stand and to go have all regular, expected imperative forms (except for the slight alternation in iddua - to go): The negative forms are built as isolated present subjunctive phrases: Nu dés (nu deis) - Do not give!

The passive and reflexive voice

Reflexive verbs are used with clitic personal pronouns in the accusative (me, te, se, ens, us, se) or dative (mi, ti, si, nă, vă, si). Some of them are real reflexive verbs (like se luà - to get up, se luè, III - to wash oneself), while others are just pronominal verbs (like se zjuà - to play with someone or alone). Certain reflexive verbs denote a reciprocal action between two items or people, e.g. s'eimà - to love (oneself or each other), s'îmbraceà - to hug (each other).

Impersonal verbs are used in the 3rd person sg., but they don't refer to a person, e.g. pluè (III) - to rain. Typically there is no subject in a clause in which these verbs are used. E.g. Giestre (a) pluít. - Yesterday it was raining. Doresc că pl o ua - I want it to rain.

If we transform a non-reflexive verb to a reflexive (with accusative object pronoun), that kind of form is considered a passive version of the conjugated verb. If a verb is already reflexive or pronominal, it will not be possible to convey a passive meaning in this way. E.g. active meanings: se zjuà - to play with someone or alone; zjuà - to play a sport or an instrument. Other examples: estimà (+DO, non-reflexive)/s'estimà (passive reflexive or reciprocal) - to appreciate.

Formally, the passive voice of all active tenses is derived as a compound tense with the main auxilliary to be (esse), and finally the past participle of the main verb. Example: Il scrie. - He is writing. (present indicative active) Passive forms: jest escrit - It is written (present ind.); siet escrit - that it be written (present subjunctive) fuèt escrit - was written (simple perfect); a fust escrit - has been written (compound perfect); erat escrit - it used to be written (was being written), etc.

§ Lutanian numerals

Numerals are exact quantitative determiners of other nominals, usually used in pre-position of a noun or phrase. The main two types are cardinal (counting) and ordinal numerals. Cardinal numerals 1, 2, 3, hundred and thousand are variable (in gender, case and grammatical number - partially). Larger numbers are determined with common nouns (including million, billion, milliard etc.).

Ordinal numbers are simple adjectives (with two themes, a/u) usually used before a noun.

The numerals 1-10 and their ordinal counterparts are as follows: The ordinal numbers have an unstressed formant -(i)m-. Some numbers can form ordinals without the added formant, maintaining the root: terç, terçia (3rd), cărt(-Ø), cătra (4th), pentiu, pentia (5th), seist/sist, sesta/sista (6th), nunt/nunta (9th).

The usage and declension of numeral one

The numeral one has the same forms as the indefinite article, but it represents a stressed form (quantitative). Some differences do appear in marking the feminine subject and direct object:

une case - a house (indef. art.), una casa - one house (nominative, number one)

The direct object is marked with o /o/, /u/, same as the definite article and possibly a feminine DO pronoun.

Am vist unua casa/filja; unu-o casą I saw one house /one girl. La veu unu/uną. (marked -ą, usual for animate, -u - weak form inanimate). I see one.

The masculine and neuter genders use approximately the same endings (without final -a) for the direct object: unu or o (inanimate), unon or on (animate).

Am vist o mur /(un)on fiu; I saw one wall /one boy. Lu veu unu/unon. (marked -on, usual for animate, -u - weak form inanimate). I see one.

The number can also receive the definite article and have a plural form to represent a group (unos, unes, unis - ones as opposed to others - ăltros, -es, -is). The oblique case forms (including acc.) with the definite article are rare and exist as suffix articulation forms, mainly in singular - unulu, unula, unu-o (acc. F), unii (F only), uniis/uneis (pl.) only if the referent noun is not stated. E.g. L 'am vist unu-o/unulu I saw the one (DO). Parlu spre unulu. I am talking about the one.

Often the sentence is rephrased to use a different adjective, like l'unic(a) - the only, the unique.

The usage and declension of numeral two

The numeral two represents a dual number, however the noun following it is used in the plural form. The form dous is used for masculine and neuter gender when a noun follows or the definite article preceeds the numeral:

dous fius - los dous - two boys, the two (of them); dues filjes - les dues - two girls, the two (of them)

If the referent noun is not stated with the cardinal number, and no article is used, the M/N form is duos:

Am vist dous fius. I saw two boys. - Los am vist duos. I saw two. Am vist dues filjes. I saw two girls. - Les am vist dues. I saw two.

The oblique form is duju. Parlu spre duju fius/filjes. I am taking about two boys/girls. I am talking about two.

Genitive (without preposition): Casa duju filjeis - Casa lis duju (filjes),  The house of [the] two girls.

The numeral two only accepts the definite article in pre-position.

The determiner ambos/ambes - both

The determiner changes identically to number two, but it only accepts the definite article in post-position: ambos (los) fius, ambes (les) filjes.

The emphatic determiner ambosduos/ambesdues - both the two

The determiner changes identically to number two, but it usually does not accept the definite article (only for extreme emphasis).

Ambesdues (filjes) su puitres. (subject). Am vist (a) ambesdues filjes /Am vist ambesdues les filjes. (DO). Les am vist ambesdues (DO - stated by a clitic pronoun).

The usage and declension of numeral three

The numeral three (tres) is used with plural nouns. The definite article can be placed in front of the number (los/les tres) or after it in prepositional phrases. Les tres filjes - the three girls.

The oblique form is triu /'triw/ ~ /'tri.ju/. Casa triu filjeis - Casa lis triu (filjes),  The house of [the] three girls.

The numeral accepts the definite article in pre-position or postposition: A treis filjes/triis filjs - to the three boys/girls.

Amplifying the number set

The numerals from 11 to 19 have two parallel naming sets (A- of Romance origin, B- of Germanic origin)

The tens element of cardinal numbers is represented by the part -tse/-dze (final) or di(u)- (initial) in the Romance set, always unstressed. The tens element is represented by the stressed final part  -tienne in the Germanic set, except for the numeral eleven (/'un.͡tsĩ/).

The ordinal numerals of the Romance set can be composed of two inflected parts: disimuprim(u) M/N, disimaprima, disma-prima F (11th).

The numerals from 30 to 90 have two parallel naming sets ( A- of Slavic origin, B- of Greek origin). The tens element of cardinal numbers is represented by two different stressed final parts: -des ă mte /də'sə̯̃m.tə/ ~ /də'sɨ̯m.tə/ for the Slavic set, and -c o mpte /'kõ(m).ptə/ for the Greek set.

In informal speech, the part -desămte is shortened to -sămt, and the part -compte to -co(m)p.

The ordinal numerals are built with the stressed suffix -ès(i)m- and the declension endings: E.g. trietcomptesim (-esma) - 30th, centesim - 100th.

Compound numerals are formed by juxtaposition of parts, e.g. vint-un 21, trietdesămt-un 31, pentdesămte-tres 53.

The noun 100 (cînt) acts as a neuter noun in singular (with only two euphonic forms - cînt and cîntu), and as a variable gender complementary noun (or adjective) in the plural. E.g. (un) cînt, c î ntu-unu, cîntu-dous,... Pl. dous c e ntos/dues c e ntes, prepositional form: de duju centis, de pent centis.

The noun 1000 (mil, milles) acts as a neuter noun of group III in singular and plural. E.g. (u) mil, dous milles/dues milles, pent milles.

Ordinal - millesim (-esma) -1000th. Sometimes a form millessim is used to denote an approximate, adjectival value of a large order.

A compound numeral example: 2423 - dous milles txetre(-)centos vint-tres, F: dues milles txetre centes vint-tres.

The numeral milliún is of group III (pl. milliunes), and the noun milliard(u) of group II (pl. milliardos). There is a special approximative quantity noun in the plural designating thousands (or an indefinite number) - milli a res (group III, N gender).

Using large numbers in proper ordinal form is rare, but actually every part of the number should be transferred to its ordinal form, which is quite posh:

2423rd = duim-millesim cătrim-centesim vintesim-treim (M form).

Fractional numbers

Fractional numbers are actually similar to substantivized feminine gender ordinal number. To form a fractional number, start from the ordinal root of numerals 3 to 10, or the cardinal root of others (vint-, cent-, mill-), add stressed -jém*- (*from unstressed -im-) and feminine gender inflection endings. E.g. una terç ie ma (1/3), tres cătr ie mes (3/4). tres centiemes = 3/100, 3 milliemes = 3/1000. A common way to pronounce fractions is also with cardinal numbers: 5 sur 12 (5/12), or 5 de 12 (5/32).

Half: unu dimidiu (dimidie) - a neuter noun (pl. + -s) (group II or III); d e mi, dem í t (abbreviation, pl. dem i ds), s e mi (pl. s e mis) - borrowed term (N noun).

Multiplicative numbers

To form multiplicative numbers, add -úple to a base (root) of a cardinal number. Exceptions: unúple or sîmple (1), d ou le (2), triule, treple (3), n o uple (9), decúple (10), and short, unstressed stems - sis(t)- (6), sett- (7), huit- or utt- (8). These forms can be used as adjectives or adverbs.

E.g. valúr utt u ple - 8 times value, 8-fold. S 'ha înăltzít (de) triule. It raised to a triple (adverbial).

The collective/pronominal numeral

If a numeral (starting from two) functions as a pronoun and thus replaces the plural referent noun, it is also called a collective or pronominal numeral (especially when referring to animate objects). It is usually used with the definite article (los, les, li[s]) and/or a clitic pronoun attached to the verb, which indicates gender and case. By opposite logic, the numeral one in the plural (unos, unes) is called a collective. The collective form of ordinal numerals (adjectives) is also their plural.

The distributive numeral

The distributive numeral is a structure involving adverbial particles po (by) or căt(a) (every). E.g. po dous (in groups of two), căta dous (every two). The structure with po + numeral is an adverbial phrase, describing a verb, while Căta is atributted to a nominal word. The iterative structure NUM + po + NUM (dous po dous, two by two) can indicate a sequence or ordinality. The numeral one has to be used with a non-zero ending when po is involved: unu-po-unu one by one, po-unu - one each; căd-un - each one, every one.

§ The interrogative/relative and indefinite pronouns

In Lutanian, the interrogative and relative pronouns (like who, what and others) are identical in form, but differ in grammatical usage and prosody (stressed and unstressed pronouns).

The pronouns who (qui - animate) and what (txe - inanimate) are divided by animacy, but do not distinguish gender or number.

- The interrogative pronouns (quí?, txé?) replace an unknown answer to a question (in any grammatical case) and are relatively stressed within the typical interrogative intonation.

- The relative pronouns replace a nominal word, phrase or a part of speech either known to the speakers, generally known or previously stated. They are relatively unstressed, usually preceded by the definite article which indicates gender and number.

Morphology

The pronouns who (qui) and what (txe) originate from the same root /k/ (with a sound change) and are inflected like mono-thematic adjectives (with the theme -e). The genitive and dative forms have been levelled for all genders (with the characteristic ending -i):

a quí? /ki/ a cui? to whom (?)/whose?. There is an optional sygmatic form for the genitive, in which the preposition a is not mandatory: quís? cuis? - whose? ... li cuis ...- ... whose ... In animate question pronouns, the form qui is mostly kept intact, e.g. the prepositional form de quí? de txé? (from who?/what?), or the direct object form quin? /kĩn/, also synonymous quę(n) /kɛ̃/ (who?).

The inanimate txé? what? actually changes only in the genitive/dative cui? and the relative form que - optional for countable items, instead of txe: de (la/les/los) que ...For abstract, uncountable, indefinite nouns, txe is used:    de (lu) txe ... from what ...

Examples of usage

Quí parla? Quí jest-hi? Who is talking? Who's there? (a) qu í n as vist? Who did you see? - direct object. Con quí vas? Who are you going with?

In relative sentences, the definite article is used in pre-position to the relative pronoun (el qui ... the one who). It can optionally be dropped in the place of the subject or direct object or replacing a prepositional phrase which is stated immediately before or after the relative pronoun (in re-iteration).

There is a difference between a general and a specific statement. E.g. El qui parla ...  The one  who is talking... Qui parla ... One who talks.

The rules about the mandatory usage of clitic personal pronouns complementing the indirect object (dative case) still apply when interrogative and relative pronouns replace the IO (in any word order). As for the direct object, the clitic pronoun reiterating or anticipating an overt DO is optional.

E.g. La filja a cui le  donu roses... The girl to whom [ to her ] I give roses. The clitic pronoun le - to her is obligatory.

La filja quę(n) (l')estimu - The girl (who) I appreciate La casa txe/que (la) vend - The house (that) I am selling. > The clitic pronoun la - is optional.

In indirect questions, the pronouns who(?)/what(?) are still treated as interrogative.

- The interrogative and relative pronoun căl? - which replaces an item or items that can be chosen from a limited set of such items or types (e.g. a set of different colours). It a question of quality (from Latin qualis). It is inflected like a mono-thematic adjective (e-themed). The form distinguishes between singular and plural.

It has two euphonic alternatives for the forms: căl/cale(s)/quelle(s) (which), for the genitive/dative căi(s) or the plural quells. The genitive and dative cases can make use of the form a cui? (whose) as a suppletive form. The form with the root stressed -e- can be used when feminine gender reference is exclusive.

E.g. Căl colur preferres? Which colour do you prefer? Spre cale coloare parles? Which colour are you talking about? Colú(r)/Colores, M gender group III - colour

El colur [el] căl jo prefer jest [el] blau. The colour I prefer is white. El colur spr-o cale parlu jest blau.

Negative and indefinite pronouns

The negative pronouns are constructed by adding a negation particle (ni[n]-) to the relative forms of qui and txe (who and what).

ninqui - nobody, no-one,           nitxe - nothing. Only in the case of nitxe, the prefix is ni-. No plural forms are used.

The inflected forms are: (a) nincui (Gen/Dat) - to/of nobody, ninque - prepositional, ninquin(a), ninquę(n) - direct object.

Example: în ninque casu - in no case (at all).

Rule of the negatives

If the verb is used before the negative pronoun, it is negated, if it's used after the pronoun, it is not negated. Example:

Nu lucra în ninque casu. În ninque casu lucra. It doesn't work in any case (at all). ~ In no case it works. It works in no case.

Indefinite pronouns derived from qui and txe

Prefixed derivations with ăl- and căl- give the following pronominal forms: ălqui ([a]uquí) /'əɫ.ki/~/əɫ.'ki /, /u.'ki:/ somebody, someone; ăltxe /'əɫ.tʃə/ ~/əɫ.'tʃə/ - something; călqui /'kəɫ.ki/ - căltxe /'kəɫ.tʃə/ - someone /something of some sort, type (quality)

The inflected forms of the compound pronouns can use the singular pattern of the element căl (which), inflected for masculine (cale-), or only the invariable form căl instead. Example: în caleque (călque) casa - in any sort/kind of house.

Indefinite pronouns with verbal elements: Suffixating the verbal element -voua ("will") to relative pronouns can produce new indefinite pronouns with the sense of randomness (-ever):

quivoua /ki.'ʋɔ.wa/ whoever,     txevoua - /tʃə.'ʋɔ.wa/ whatever, călvoua /kəɫ.'ʋɔ.wa/ whichever

The inflected forms are based on the pronoun forms of who/what: (a) cuivoua /coivoua (Gen/Dat)- to/of whomever/whatever; quevoua /txevoua /calevoua - prepositional, quin(e)voua, quęnvoua, txevoua - direct object (Acc).

The verbal element can be left invariable, but it can also artificially change to indicate tense/aspect (partially) and number (sg./pl.).

The verbal element -xte indicates a desirably suitable indefinite choice: qui-xté (quixté) /ki.'ʃte/; txe-xté / tʃə.'ʃte/; căl-xté /kəɫ.'ʃte/ - whoever / whatever / whichever (may) be suitable/desirable/wanted.

The verbal element can be invariable, but it can also artificially change to indicate aspect.

Indefinite pronouns tot and oin (all, every)