B'la'ajà

Overview

= Setting = ...

Developed from a language with a syllabic root structure based on (C)VV(VV). Vowel combinations became tonalized, rounded, aspirated, or rhotic, or a combination of these, instead of diphthongisation. Some simple clear vowels are considered combinations of unstressed vowels.

Agglutinative transitioning into a fusional language.

= Phonology = ...

Consonants pronounced as in English. Consonants with a different manner of articulation than indicated by orthography. Consonants with a non-standard English transliteration (i.e., ĥ) are explained below. Unvoiced members of a pair appear before the unvoiced members, 0 indicating that that member of the pair does not occur in the standard dialect of B'la'ajà of Tkalkalis and the eastern North Sea coastal cities. Paranthized consonants are rare or only occur in certain environments and are noted. Consonants after / are ejective or "strong" versions of the same sound.
 * Consonants

place of articulation --&gt;

/manner of articulation

Vowels:

Tones:

Tones are a newly developing feature of the language, usually found in environments where word forms change for morphological reasons, i.e. verb conjugations.

Four tones, à   high falling, á  low rising, ã mid falling/rising, a  neutral

Morphological phonotactics

Nasal after vowels.

/b/ Before another consonant in a cluster.

Only found after /d/ and before /v/ in a specific verbal morphological construction

Only found after /t/ and before /f/

Only found in environments adjacent to silibants, often a regional variant

Allophonic with the alveolar flap

[8] The lateral fricative is the manifestation of a doubled lateral approximate. In some dialects a doubled l is pronounced /đ/.

=Basic Grammar=

...

Pronouns Pronouns have number, person, exclusivity, gender (in the third person singular only), and case. The subject pronouns are used to mark the verbal phrase. Subject pronouns in this role may have an etymological root in common with the articles, which may explain morphological similarities between noun and verb phrases. Number Person Exclusivity Case
 * Singular and plural.
 * Many plural forms are similar.
 * Plural pronouns exhibit exclusivity. Some      speakers may use the fourth person when trying to avoid explicitly making      this distinction in sensitive contexts.
 * The usual 1,2,3, with the addition of a possible     "4th" person, which can be translated as "one" or      "they".  It is used whenever when the subject (or object)      of the sentence is uncertain.
 * First person plural inclusive includes the audience,     the exclusive excludes it.
 * Second person plural inclusive is genera
 * Third person plural exclusive indicates a distinction     between two groups (it can also be used in a singular or general sense) -      "they" but "not some others"
 * Subject and object.
 * All properly formed verbal     phrases must have an explicit subject pronoun which marks the verbal      phrase, and is used even when the subject has been stated.  b' can be      used when the subject must be inferred, and is often used for almost all subjects      in colloquial speech (although subject-subject pronoun non-agreement is      considered ungrammatical, uneducated, or rude speech).  Verb phrases      marked with b' often take on the appearance of noun phrases, but there are      limitations on the degree to which it may truly behave as them.
 * S'u(d) nwú-mjœs. She        gives it/her/him to me.  [1Ssubj + i: (class I verb set) elided        with i:d]
 * S'i:fai nwú-mjœs. She        gives all of you to me.  [1Ssubj + i: + fai, no elision).
 * B'îd îd nwú-mjœs. She         gives it/her/him to it.
 * B'ai eu nwú-mjœs. She         gives me to them, as opposed to others.
 * K'eu nwú-mjœs.  She       gives me to you.
 * B'îd îd nwú-mjœs. She         gives it/her/him to it.
 * B'ai eu nwú-mjœs. She         gives me to them, as opposed to others.
 * K'eu nwú-mjœs.  She       gives me to you.
 * K'eu nwú-mjœs.  She       gives me to you.

{|cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1" width="100%" style="border: 1pt outset black; width: 100%;" class="MsoNormalTable" Singular Plural inclusive Plural exclusive Subject Object Subject Object Person 1M
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1F 1N Exclusive (only...) t' 1 t'eu t'eu t'î t'ef t'ő t'ef 2 t'ai t'ai t'iĥ t'ai 3 d'mî d'nî t'îd t'îd t'idi t'idi t'em t'e (4) t'în t'în Diminutive (dear, less, few, only)  k'*n 1 k'eun k'eun k'în k'efme k'őn k'efme 2 k'ain k'ain k'iĥme k'ain 3 gmîn gnîn k'îdme k'îdme k'idin k'idin k'emme k'en (4) k'înme k'înme Conjunctive (and) dhy' 1 dh'eu dh'eu dh'ai dh'ai dh'ii dh'ii 2 dh'ai dh'ai dh' iĥ dh'ai 3 dh'um dh'un dh'îd dh'îd dh'idi dh'idi dh'e dh'e (4) dh'aj dh'in Optative (or) noe' 1 2 3 (4)
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The four classes of verbs also have a spatial dimension. (î) = in, inner, through, to (ö) = out, outside, around, from (û) = above, up, expressed and (ö)+(û)= wŭ = down, below, hidden, covered. These particles have developed into postpositions, similar to Japanese, and once exhibited vowel harmony with the related verbal phrase. û-mjœs = to give.

Either we or them will go. N'idi nœfii ć'wákje. You and I are friends. Ðy'eu đy'ai tmœdjatje'în. She doesn't give it (the food) to it (the dog). B'îd îd ni:nkwú-mjœs b'annœ b'vœm ni:nkwú-mjœs. (Because dog is class II animate, it does not require io marker)

She gave it (the food) to it (the dog). B'îd îd ntwú-mjœs b'annœ b'vœm ntwú-mjœs. She did not give it (the food) to it (the dog). B'îd îd n'kwú-mjœs b'annœ b'vœm n'kwú-mjœs.

She will give it (the food) to it (the dog). B'îd îd n'tywú-mjœs b'annœ b'vœm n'tywú-mjœs.

She will not give it (the food) to it (the dog). B'îd îd n'kywú-mjœs b'annœ b'vœm n'kywú-mjœs. She put the (waste food) in the sink. Sink b'usuj B'alt-usujt ky'vœm n'twú-ĥrû.

Substantives Nouns in b'La'ajà have class, number, and sense (which can be described as "partitiveness" or social proximity to the speaker). There is one article which changes form for number and sense. Class is indicated when objects are quantified, and the class marker becomes part of the article. The usage of the article is not as clear cut as in English or as in Spanish, and bears some similarities to the usage of the article in Arabic. In colloquial usage it is common to drop the article but not the classifier, and in some idiomatic expressions only the article is used. As in modern English, there is no gender per se, but there are words that are either typically used by men as opposed to women or children (gendered usage) or words that relate specific information about the actual sex or perceived gender of the word. Class There are 11 classes of nouns which can be grouped into three "superclasses" based on morphological behavior. Members of a class share characteristics, including common epenthic endings in vowel-final words, and they dictate which type of adjectives may follow and how they are to be declined, and which verb morphology is to be used when that noun is the subject of the sentence. Group I includes classes I-III. Each take their own adjectective set, but they share Verb Morphology I which applies when they are the subject. Group II includes classes IV-VIII. Each take their own adjectective set, but they share Verb Morphology II which applies when they are the subject. Group III includes classes IX-XII. They share one adjective set, which is superficially the same as that for class VIII (except some irregularities in the plural). Class IX uses Verb Morphology I, Class X, XI and XII use Verb Morphology 0.
 * Class I contains mainly people and anthropomorphosed     objects or creatures
 * Class II mostly animals
 * Class III languages, origins, countries, edible plants     and animals (often used for the meat of animals and not the animals alive)
 * Class IV mostly long or cylendrical objects
 * Class V flat, thin, flexible, or objects easily broken     into pieces (pile of hair, dust, glass)
 * Class VI large things, liquids, augmentative
 * abstract nounsnegativeverbal nouns
 * Class VIII general class - foreign loan words,     neologisms, and anything that does not apply to other classes.
 * Class IX pejorative forms, taboo words
 * infinitivesaffirmativeverbal nouns
 * (ch') Class XI, which has no singular–plural     distinction, is used for mass nouns and partitives.  it can also be      used in the "general" sense.
 * (k') Class XII is the nullative of XI

b'annoe-k-lawd          the wild dog    or b'annoe-n-lawd

b'oerbu:-m-idje           the tall reed     or b'oerbu:-n-idje

m'mjoes b'argul          to give gifts, giving gifts

m' ĥnœś b'ram            to talk about people, gossip

m' ĥyœ-s-awi:n           to say truthfully, telling the truth

m' ĥyœ dawt              to say deceptively, to deceive

m'œköl-s-uwejt          to walk home, walking home

m' tîprœ-s-aljol           to eat

The article is used for status constructus genitive, especially in simple forms when adjectives are not used.

De'i(k)              father

b'de'i             the father

De'in             the father of

De'in b'ram    The man's father

As in Arabic, only the noun in the genitive bears the article - possessive pronouns are formed by an article preceding the pronoun:

Kai'n b'ős m'rùjn. He is our King.

Kai'n b'iĥ s'rùjn. I am your king.

De'in b'eu vt'ìr/azv/. My parents were kind.

B'mhà b'ram The man on the hill. mak, hill   b'ma ma'n

[b'ma-û = B'mhà]

B'ma b'ram. The man of the hill.

B'máw b'ram. The man from the hill.

Máw b'ram   The article has a singular plural, dual, nullative (none), partitive (some of), exclusive (none of these participate or have X) form. A so-called diminutive is a special usage of the nullative. The static form of the noun reacts to most of these. As in Arabic, the article in b'La'ajà may change pronunciation depending on the sound that immediately follows it. However, in b'La'ajà the critical difference is whether the following sound is voiced or unvoiced (except before the self-same sound), unless the consonant is palatized, in which case it is always the original value. b'ku:\ ram  (the) one person    b'ka jiddeh  one tree            b'lli\ soem  one seed    b'ko~ de'i  father ul twe\ ram  (the) two people     ulka jiddeh  two trees          ul'lli\ soem                        ulko~ de'i si. ku:\ ram  three people          si.ka jiddeh   three trees        si.lli\ soem                        si.ko~ de'i b'ram            person, people       u:jjiddeh  tree, trees            u:ssoem   the seed, seeds     b'de'i f'ram             people                    f'jjiddeh  trees                      f'soem                            f'de'i k' ku:\ ram     no people                k'ka jiddeh  no trees              k'lli\ soem                         ch ku:\ ram some people              chka jiddeh  some trees           ch'lli\ soem dhy ku:\ ram  and people noe ku:\ ram

Sentences and Verbs Syntax  B'La'aja\ is a SOV language, though there are some aspects which make this designation a little unclear. It is a topic-centric language, like Japanese, and this topic manifests itself in b'La'aja as the noun phrase, which includes any modifiers to the noun before the noun is stated. However, the actual morphological subject of the sentence is always the subject pronoun which marks the verb phrase. Object noun phrases occur between the topic/subject and verb phrase, or a pronoun object/subject cluster can occur before the verb. Verb phrases have the following composition: person + [aspect + (infixes)] + class/schema + verb + (adverbial phrase)  Person Tense [aspect+infixes]
 * See pronouns
 * Tenses in b'La'aja\, strictly speaking, are a matter of     perfective/imperfective more than they are tenses in the sense of      time.  However, there is a "future perfect" aspect which      can be used to either state something that will be completed at a future      time, or the current or past potential of something to happen.  With      certain infixes it can also describe an ongoing action or a habitual one.
 * Morphologically, aspect memes act as markers to the     "tense" clause (similar to articles), the predicate of which can      be an infix which describes the state of the action in      question.


 * (t' affirmative plain, t'h         affirmative "i know it to be true", tj "i was told this          and i'm pretty sure", d' "i'm not sure it's true" dj i          was told this and i'm not too sure of its veracity"
 * (k', k'h, kj, g', gj...)         negative
 * Willingness (modifies         likeliness)
 * Permission
 * Ability
 * Want or wish
 * Class/schema
 * Verb
 * times done (once, over and        over, finally)
 * speed (fast, slow)
 * nature (languidly, sleepily,        with pride)
 * time of the action (now,        today, five minutes ago)
 * location of action (at the        store, on a boat, in the house)
 * adverbial phrases may hook       into other clauses to create nested phrases)
 * times done (once, over and        over, finally)
 * speed (fast, slow)
 * nature (languidly, sleepily,        with pride)
 * time of the action (now,        today, five minutes ago)
 * location of action (at the        store, on a boat, in the house)
 * adverbial phrases may hook       into other clauses to create nested phrases)
 * location of action (at the        store, on a boat, in the house)
 * adverbial phrases may hook       into other clauses to create nested phrases)

Verbs do not conjugate for person, number, or gender. It does conjugate for class, and register (low or high, distal or proximal), with modality coming in the form of suffixes which may also work in conjunction with an infix between the stem and the substantive particle. personal pronouns are enclitic, and have a radically different form when used by themselves. Register is used to indicate the speaker's attitude towards the subject of the sentence (the subject of the verbal predicate). Stative copula predicate î to be has an irregular copula form used in simple stative constructions, which is not usually necessary in more complex sentences with more than one clause. It can be changed to indicate register. B'ram s'în. I am a man. B'tuw n'în. She is a girl. Mjedik m'rin. He is a nurse. Kai m'rùjn. He is King. F'ram îś'în. We are people. Four Main Conjugation Schema (w/ Copulae)

Kt'wá'îd. K'wá'îd.

Present: I did it. St'wá'îd. S'wá'îd. You did it. Kt'wá'îd. K'wá'îd. He did it. Mt'wá'îd. M'wá'îd. She did it. Nt'wá'îd. N'wá'îd. It did it. îdtwá'îd. îd'wá'îd. We did it. îśt'wá'îd. îś'wá'îd. We did it. őst'wá'îd. ős'wá'îd. You all did it. iĥt'wá'îd. iĥ'wá'îd. They did it. vœt'wá'îd. *vœ'wá'îd. vœ+û+a = uw'a == vuw'a'îd They do it. vœ+ö+a = vew'a'îd They have it. vœ+î+a = vìridi They are them. or coll. = vœ v'ìn. singular        plural inclusive          plural exclusive First          s' [eu]          îś' [fai]                    ős' [fii]  (exclusive of listener) 2nd           k' [ai]           iĥ [ai]                      em [ai]  (exclusive of speaker, but also singular) 3rd         m'/n'/îd [îd]      vœ [idi]                                                          b' [i:n]  (one, they, a person, or a general filler for when the subject is unclear)      The verbs to be (î), to have (ö), and to do (û) form the basis of the three conjugation schemes. All fully formed verbs include one of these geminates, which precedes a verbal stem which may or may not be directly related to the meaning of the geminate. Verbal stems often have substantive derivations, and are often found in forms which decline as nouns. Thus, verbs are technically a compound of the geminates and a noun. Some aspectival morphological changes are apophonic, and these verbal stems are classified by those that undergo apophonic changes and those that "resist" them. û, for instance, has a bit more complicated relationship with its verbal stems, depending on agency - i.e., whether one is acting voluntarily or something is being coerced, or acted upon. Verbs indicating self-willed action (such as û-djade "run") tend to resist lenition (*û-djœdhy) in most cases, whereas verbs in the other classes (which may be glossed as "to make do") exhibit "coercive apophony". That these verbals are verbals and not fully substantive is the morphological change required for the past participle and the gerundive (the doing, the going). Adjectives, as in Japanese, exhibit verbal tendencies. to have (ö) and to do (û) share a fourth conjugation schema between them which encompases verbal expressions such as "to create" "to make" "to give rise to" "to bring forth". The four classes also have a spatial dimension. (î) = in, inner, through, to (ö) = out, outside, around, from (û) = above, up, expressed and (ö)+(û)= wŭ = down, below, hidden, covered. These particles have developed into pospositions, similar to Japanese, and once exhibited vowel harmony with the related verbal phrase. û-mjœs = to give. to be (î) verbs tend to express aspect or description, to have (ö) a state or condition, or involuntary or passive activity, or to do (û) activity.

IO S V DO Sî nwú-mjœs'îd. She gives it to me. (emphasis on DO, or stative) IO DO S V S'rd nwú-mjœs. She gives it to me (usually in clause construction)  (-de is a common ending for repeated actions done quickly.  b'dja is a step.  so, run = to do a step repeatedly, quickly.  contrasted with û-djæmb = to walk, -amb indicated repetition that is more measured.  Reduplication is used for the superlative in these instances. û-tme = to eat.  û-tmœ'amb = to graze or eat carefully, û-tmœ'ambam = to ruminate, chew cud. û-tmede = to eat quickly, ravenously, û-tmedede can mean to devour or gnaw.)  &lt;--these are fused morphemes and are considered separate verbs - they do not have anything to do with the aspect/tense/infix/adverb structure)

Verbal Aspects Either we or them will go. N'idi nœfii tywákje. You and I are friends. Ðy'eu đy'ai tmœdjatje'în. Ðy'eu đy'ai tmœdjatje îś'în.

Tmœdjatje îś'îmin. We want to be friends.

Tmœdjatje îś'id s'imin. I want us to be friends.

or

Tmœdjatje îś'î[mî]s'imin. [That] we are in a state of friendship, it is what I wish.

Tmœdjatje îśt'în. We were friends (but not anymore). Tmœdjatje îśt'înje. We were friends (and still may be or not, but at that time we were). Tmœdjatje îśtih'înje. We were in the process of being friends. Tmœdjatje îśtih'în-ś'waha. We were [in the process of] becoming friends. Tmœdjatje îś'ih'în-ś'waha. We are becoming friends. Tmœdjatje îśty'ih'în-ś'waha. We will be becoming friends. Tmœdjatje îśty'în. We will be friends at that point, but not now. Tmœdjatje îśty'înje. We will be friends, regardless of current condition. I want to be. s'imin. I want to go. S'imwákje I am sleeping. s'wá-lwe I want to sleep. s'imwá-lwe I put the book on the shelf. How do I get to the South station? Station ûb'fœttekœ Arrive, get to ni:dan to, toward  'ai\ South     b'dowb the South station:  ûb'fœttekœ b'dowb   B'ai\ [û]b'fœttekœ [b]'dowb s'rá-ni:dan huwk choe? S'ai\ b'emoesh [îd]twá'meĥrû. The idea came to me.

S'ai\ b'emoesh [îd]t[wá']i:meĥrû. S'ghe~s b'emoesh [îd]twá'meĥrû. The idea came from me (it was my idea.)

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