Xalo

Xalo is a constructed auxlang within a fictional world (not named yet).

It was designed by the very first linguist of all humanity, an eremian. Eremians are humans (homo simiens) blessed by an Archean (little god-like being) who gave them eternal youth, that's why this first linguist had plenty of time to think about what are languages, why and how they should make one. The Eremians and their wisdom being respected and even sometimes worshiped among humanity, many countries adopted Xalo as an auxlang, and it basically became the Common Tongue over the centuries.

'' "When you need to express something, you should be able to tell it; when you don't want to, you should not need to." ''

 (Maxim of the Xalo language, by its creator) 

Xalo is head-initial, accusative, partly agglutinative (affixes) partly isolating (no gender, no number, no case, no tense, no person declension), with a minimalistic phonology and (C)V(N) phonotactic.

I beg your pardon for the unavoidable English mistakes I'll make. Please correct me!

Vowels
The sounds above are acceptable variations, while those below are the official ones.

Phonotactics
Xalo is a (C)V(N) language, with N being any nasal. Any consonant or none is fine in the onset. Any nasal (m,n,g) or none is fine in the coda.

Consonant Clusters
A consonant cluster is possible if the consonants all have the same place of articulation (labial, coronal or dorsal). Here are the only allowed consonant clusters:

Vowel Clusters
Only two "strong" (mid or low) vowels can follow each other, "weak" (high) ones are always preceded and followed by a consonant. Here are the only allowed vowel clusters: If a weak vowel happen to be next to a strong one, a consonant need to be added between them (/f/ if the weak one is /u/ and /x/ if it's /i/).

A cluster of twice the same vowel can either make a single long vowel, a glottal stop, or even a dripping tone (falling then rising).

Example


 * aa → a:
 * aa → aʔa
 * aa → ǎ

Avoidable Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs of /ŋ/ and /n/ are forbidden in root words, and those of /n/ and /m/ are avoided as much as possible. Minimal pairs of /ae/ and /ea/, /ao/ and /oa/, /eo/ and /oe/, /aa/ and /a/, /ee/ and /e/, and finally /oo/ and /o/ are also avoided, or at least put in root words very unlikely to appear in the same context.

Stress
The stress is on the penultimate syllable for content words and on the last syllable for function words, but it doesn't carry any meaning.

Content Words
Content words are nouns, verbs and modifiers (adverbs and adjectives are not distinct). Their root is either a transitive verbal root that begin with a vowel, or an intransitive substantival root that begin with a consonant. Each noun (whether it's a root or not) ends with -o, each verb (whether it's a root or not) ends with -e, and each modifier (whether it's directly derived from a root or not) ends with -a.

Substantival Roots
All substantival roots begin with a consonant, and they also end with -o just like in Esperanto. However, they do not decline according to number or case.

Examples


 * xalo - xalo
 * mao - (the) mouth(s)
 * xatso - (the) sneeze(s)

Verbal Roots
All verbal roots begin with a vowel then a consonant, and they also end with -e just like not exactly in Esperanto. However they do not decline according to tense or mood. They are always transitive.

Examples


 * ame - to eat (something)
 * alale - to sing (something)

Substantival Root → Verb
The substantival root can turn into a verb by replacing it's substantival ending by a verbal ending, however the verb will be intransitive.

Example


 * xatso - (the) sneeze(s)
 * xatse - to sneeze

When the substantival root has the meaning of a tool, an instrument, an action or an occupation, the meaning of the verb is generally pretty clear. However, if the meaning must be clarified, emphasized or forced, there are two affixes that can help: -es (express a relation) and -(f)us (express a behaviour). These affixes are most often optional, except when the meaning of the word is misleadingly clear and must be forced. Like all suffixes, they're placed before the ending of the word.

Example



Substantival root → Modifier
The substantival root can turn into a modifier by replacing it's substantival ending by the ending of a modifier.

Example


 * lako - (the) angle(s)
 * laka - angular

The affixes of relation and behaviour are used to distinguish wether the modifier means "relative to the noun" (relation affix) or "being/behave as the noun" (behaviour affix).

Example


 * mao - (the) mouth(s)
 * maa - relative to the mouth/mouth-shaped
 * maesa - relative to the mouth
 * mafusa - mouth-shaped



Affixes
Of course, like in many real auxlangs, there's a set of affixes that are regular, easy-to-use, and helpful to let the vocabulary grow. The suffixes, like in Esperanto, come before the ending.


 * -(x)it (diminutive)
 * -ot (augmentative)

Example:


 * ame - to eat → amote - to devour / amite - to peck


 * -es (to express a relation)
 * -(f)us (to express a behavior)

Examples:


 * ame - to eat → amesa -

Word Order
Xalo is heavily head-initial.

Transitive clause
Xalo is a SVO language. However this is only the default order; in poetry, the SOV and VSO forms are also allowed. In addition, the direct object can be express by the accusative preposition "-", allowing the OVS, OSV, and VOS forms. Those alternatives tend to put the topic or the acting participant in first position and the comment or passive participant in last position.

Phrase
Xalo use prepositions as its only way to express cases other than nominative and accusative.

The word order within a noun phrase is


 * 1) Selector
 * 2) Possessive pronoun
 * 3) Numeral
 * 4) ?Substantial? adjective (should I change the terminology?)
 * 5) Noun
 * 6) Modifier

The substantial adjective, must be considered a morpheme of the noun.

Example


 * - somone studying
 * - a student

Pronouns

 * mo - I, me
 * to - you (sing.)
 * xo - he, him, it, she, her
 * somo - we, us
 * soto - you (plur.)
 * soxo - they, them


 * ma - my, mine
 * ta - your, yours
 * xa - his, its, hers
 * soma - our, ours
 * sota - you, yours
 * soxa - their, theirs

Prepositions

 * kun - with (comitative)
 * ken - without (abessive)
 * Locative/Temporal
 * atun - in front of/before
 * aten - behind/after

Selectors

 * um - this or that one/these or those ones
 * em - another one/other ones
 * om - all/each
 * im - none

Numbers
The number system is senary (base-6).


 * so - some
 * im - 0
 * si - 1
 * mi - 2
 * ka - 3
 * mu - 4
 * su -5
 * xi - 6 (10)
 * xi si - 7 (11)
 * xi mi - 8 (12)
 * xi mu - 11 (15)
 * mixi - 12 (20)
 * mixi si - 13 (21)
 * mixi mi - 14 (22)
 * kaxi - 18 (30)
 * muxi - 24 (40)
 * suxi - 30 (50)
 * xa - 36 (100)
 * xa xi ka - 45 (113)
 * mixa kaxi su - 95 (235)
 * suxa suxi su - 383 (555)
 * xixa - 384 (1 000)
 * suxixa suxi su - 1 115 (5 555)
 * xosixo - 1 116 (10 000)
 * suxixa suxi su xosixo suxixa suxi su - 1 679 615 (55 555 555)
 * xomixo - 1 679 616 (100 000 000)
 * suxixa suxi su xomixo suxixa suxi su xosixo suxixa suxi su - 2 176 782 336 (555 555 555 555)
 * xokaxo - 2 821 109 907 456 (1 000 000 000 000)
 * xomuxo - 3 656 158 440 062 976 (10 000 000 000 000 000)
 * xosuxo - 4 738 381 338 321 616 896 (100 000 000 000 000 000 000)
 * xoxixo - 6 140 942 214 464 815 487 216 (1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 )
 * ... (Eremians need big numbers because maths is cool, they do not always realize that normal humans do not have time to make calculus at such scales...)

Verbal Roots

 * alale - to sing (something)
 * alalo - a song
 * ame - to eat (something)
 * ama - alimentary
 * amo - meal or food
 * ame - to eat (something)
 * ama - alimentary
 * amo - meal or food


 * atene - to be behind (something)/to follow
 * atune - to be in front (of something)/to precede

Substantive Roots

 * kxako - (the) break(s)/broken part(s)
 * kxaka - broken
 * kxake - to be broken
 * lako - (the) angle(s)
 * laka - angular
 * lake - to be angular


 * xaxo - (the) laugh(s)
 * xaxe - to laugh

Interjections/Onomatopoeias

 * alala! - ?? (singing)
 * am! - yum! (I'm hungry/I like this food)
 * xa xa xa! - ha ha ha (laughs)
 * xo xo xo! - ho ho ho (loud laughs)
 * xi xi xi! - hi hi hi (soft laughs)