Chawalaga

Grammar Summary

The grammar of this conlang relies heavily on semantics based on grammar rules. While context always plays a role in any language semantics and syntax take primary role instead of context or inflection. Where context and semantics intersect context determines the semantics of the situation and how a sentence or phrase is formed. Nouns rely heavily on semantics in regard to their type and how grammar dictates that nouns are treated as classes, not individually or in groups. Each noun on its own is seen as it’s own class and must be modified through a change on semantics depending on determiners and particles. Verbs do not conjugate but are instead modified by particles, auxiliary verbs and other modifiers in the irrealis form for aspect and mood as well as adverbs. Verb infinitives are also its indicative form and are understood to be present (or semantically habitual such as the infinite verb talk; this gives some verbs a semantic gerund and infinitive the same form without a habitual aspect) therefore to describe when or how a verb happens it must be modified. It is ungrammatical to use a habitual aspect with the verbs be and know.

There are no homophones in the conlang. Each word has their own meaning with different spelling and unique pronunciation. Therefore there is relatively few words that are multi functional or have multiple meanings. Some nouns however may have multiple meanings. The most simple phrase or sentence is a verb with its object. Subjects can be dropped depending on context. However subjects are almost always required and used with a subject article/marker.

Nouns do not inflect for number or category. Determiners that modify the number of the noun is juxtaposed instead. Nouns are divided into the category of animacy or inanimacy. In some nouns this contrast may change the meanings of nouns. For example body is animate but it’s opposite corpse is an inanimate noun.

The standard writing of word order is subject-verb- object. However, there is flexibility in order through prepositions, pronouns and articles.

Parts of Speech:

nouns

adjectives

verbs

particles

determiners

prepositions

adverbs

conjunctions

numerals

Nouns

have six types: countable, uncountable, mass, abstract and proper nouns

Countable nouns

These nouns usually require number or quantifier to specific plurality. Otherwise the noun may stand alone. These nouns require definite article to mark the subject in modified word order. Countable nouns are usually animate but some nouns may be inanimate. Example: dogs (animate) vs. building (inanimate)

Uncountable nouns

Requires unit particle or determiners. Does not require any article even as a subject in modified word order. Usually these nouns are inanimate. Example: rice or beans

Mass nouns

Require partitive articles when a portion of the noun is being specified. Mass nouns are only inanimate. Example: water or light

Abstract nouns

These nouns may require either partitive articles or unit particle to determine portion or amount of a noun. In some cases any article or particle are needed. Abstract nouns are only inanimate. Example: love or courage

Proper names

Require capitalization and include names of cities, people etc. months and dates are also capitalized. These nouns are neither animate or inanimate. However, since these nouns includes names of people animate pronouns are used. Inanimate determiners may be used.

Unit particle

is used with uncountable and mass nouns to determine a portion of that noun. This unit particle measures the indefinite amount of the noun. The order in which the particle fits in a sentence is

Quantifier + unit particle + noun

Unit particles can be used with any animate or inanimate noun.

Adjectives may proceed the noun by coming after the unit particle. Adjectives may come before or after the noun as long as they come after determiners. Some adjectives are semantically masculine and feminine. This usually applies to people and animals. When gendered adjectives are used nouns(subject) may be dropped depending on context. When the noun is not omitted the adjective must agree with the gender and animacy of the noun if applicable. Most adjectives are gender neutral and inanimate. They also are mostly formed with adjective suffixes from nouns.

Certain nouns can be transformed into an adjective by a suffix. These are used with words like hunger, cold, hot, fear etc.

When multiple adjectives are used the order quality/size, color, shape is followed.

Compliments might be prepositions, relative clauses or dependent clauses.

Not all of these elements are required in noun phrases. Noun phrases also include phrases with pronouns and relative clauses.

Determiners

These include all articles, demonstratives, interrogative words, possessives, quantifiers and numbers. Determiners are not required but may be used in noun phrases. If used it must follow the guidelines aforementioned. Demonstratives are divided into animacy and proximity.

Possessive phrases

Never have any articles. They are always semantically definite noun phrases. The construction used is similar to that of English.

Example: it’s the house of my friend (without the article)

Quantifiers:

May appear before or after the noun phrase. There is no animacy category.


 * Definiteness: There is one definite,one indefinite and one partitive article. The most commonly used article is the partitive article while the indefinite article is the least used. Direct objects with a negator ( not ) signifies that the noun is indefinite. Thus, an indefinite determiner or indefinite article can optionally be used. With verbs that express emotion such as want or wish a preposition of motion is required before the noun and is therefore definite. Articles are only used with common and uncountable nouns and are not used with any other noun classes. Articles are not required with verbs that use the gnomic and evidential aspect particles. In addition, some adjectives with nominal suffixes are semantically definite. Nouns phrases with their subject used before the main verb are definite while subjects or indirect objects are indefinite when used after the verb. Articles are not required to be used next to prepositions.

Definite Article:

Has one form regardless of animacy or number.

Word order may express definiteness. Compare: into the room rushed a boy vs the boy rushed into the room.

Plural determiners also determine that noun phrases are definite.

When inanimate nouns are certain or expected  an accusative preposition is required followed by the definite article. When both the speaker and listener know of this information the definite article is dropped and only the preposition remains.

Definite article marks new or given information from the speaker to listener.

Definite article is never used with body parts and is only used with countable and uncountable nouns. Definite articles are not used with proper nouns or names.

Indefinite article:

The number for one is used in noun phrases with subjunctive mood particles. Indefinite article plays a smaller role than the definite article as nouns are semantically indefinite.

Partitive Article

This article can be translated as some and has one form. This article can be used with uncountable nouns such as liquids, substances, and food etc. As a general rule of thumb this article can be used to replace measure words. In English saying bars of chocolate or sheet of paper, the partitive article would replace bars and sheet. While there are words that are equivalent to these not all nouns have their own measure word and the partitive article is used. The partitive article is only used when the amount of a noun is unknown. It is thus required. Some abstract nouns may optionally have this article used.


 * The subject of a noun phrase is preceded with a definite or indefinite article. In order to determine the subject of the phrase, subjects answer the question of who or what the speaker is referring to.
 * Personal pronouns have first, second and third person singular and the plural is formed with the word all after the pronoun. Second person has a formal singular form. Third person pertains to animacy or gender which includes he, she or it form. All other subject pronouns are required. Subject pronouns must proceed the indefinite preposition or other prepositions to serve as the object of the verb.


 * Reflexive pronouns mark the subject of a dependent clause as the same to the main clause.
 * Impersonal pronoun: an indefinite pronoun that is used when the subject is general or unknown. This pronoun lacks number or gender. This pronoun can also be used for inanimate subjects.
 * Reciprocal pronoun: express a relation between compliments of a verbal phrase. Usually translated as each other.

Possession and possessor

The possessor is placed before the possession. Possessions may be proceeded by possessives or determiners. Possessive pronouns have a first, second and third indefinite form without gender or number. Unlike personal pronouns they cannot be dropped.

Verbs do not conjugate for tense, person, or number and their infinitive forms are only used. Verbs semantically are true and understood to be in the present moment of the speaker. (Except verbs that must take an object). Mood particles, auxiliary verbs, aspect particles and adverbs helps to modify the main verb. Aspect marks non present for verbs by means of perfect or imperfect aspects. For the gerund form the copula is used directly before the main verb with a semantic meaning that the action is on going. Aspect particles are dropped in adverbial phrases. Usage of subordinate verbs have a semantic meaning to the aspect of the main verb.

Modal verbs follow main verbs. They are not followed by aspect or mood markers. They cannot be modified by intensifiers. In addition, they cannot follow the subject or take a direct object. Common auxiliary verbs are can, should, could, should, would, will, may, might, and must.

Copula: There are two copula verbs. One is static and the other is non static. This means that the static verb be refers to characteristics that are held true while the second verb refers to changing states such as emotional states or conditions. Similarly there are two forms of the word to know. One form is used for facts while the other verb is used for knowing people, things or places. The copula is never used with evidential mood.

There is also a negation copula in contrast to the copula to be. This is translated to “to not be.”  It is used to state a lack of something (to not be hungry; not hungry), or in conjunction with other verbs as a warning, prohibition or command.

In addition to the negation copula, there is also a static existential verb which translates to there is/are which has similar use to English.

There are three aspects:

Aspects:

Aspects are dropped when adverbs are used but may be used with mood particles. Aspect particles may be used on its own if the verb being modified by the aspect has already been mentioned. The main verb may be dropped of context is clear.

Perfect aspect: expresses an action that is no longer taking place in the present and is completed. This action is not expected to be repeated.

Imperfect aspect: particles that express action taking place in the present and expected to continue into the future. One aspect marker denotes static situations. Using the infinitive of go as an auxiliary verb before the main verb indicates an action not in the present but in the future. The imperfect aspect usually precedes the subjunctive mood particle. This construction can also be used with the imperfective aspect marker in the same clause. Lexical verbs such as born, arrive, and die do not use imperfect particle.

Habitual/gnomic aspect: expresses repetition of a verb in the definite sense. Used also to describe general truths either repeated or as a reality in itself. I.e dogs bark. Articles are dropped with this aspect but determiners may be used with this aspect to imply specific individuals. It is ungrammatical to use this aspect with to be and to know as there are forms for each that indicate a gnomic aspect semantically.

Adverbs are words or expression that modifies verbs, adjectives, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. The principal function of adverbs is to modify verbs. In verbal phrases adverbs describe the circumstances of an action. In which case aspect markers are never used. Adverbs describing manner and time usually fulfill the role of aspect and sometimes mood. Therefore, those markers are unnecessary to use in adverbial phrases. Mood markers may optionally be used if appropriate to the phrase. In describing adjectives they usually do so by degree.

Mood is expressed through exclamation marks, mood particles of intention, desire, suffixes and auxiliary verbs. Main verbs may be dropped for mood particles only. This does not apply to evidential mood as that mood is required to follow the main verb. There are eight moods:

Subjunctive mood : expresses subjectivity, uncertainty or unreality. Expressed through auxiliary verbs that follow the main verb immediately. Certain particles that express this mood also follow the main verb immediately.

Conditional mood: is expressed similar to English would + infinitive. It is sometimes required that this is followed by if.

Imperative mood: marked by exclamation mark in writing. In speech, the second to last syllable is stressed. In monosyllabic words, the word itself is stressed.

Exhortation mood: this mood is marked by interjections that are placed after the verb. It expresses exhortation of the main verb.

Potential mood: using auxiliary verbs: may, can, ought and must indicate this mood. There are no particles to express this mood.

Evidential mood: indicates evidence or hearsay of an action. Verbs that may indicate this mood are: understand, see, know, and hear. Usually verbs that describe the five senses are used. With other verbs particles follow the verb to indicate that the speaker was present or not present when the action occurred. There are two subtype particles that partially mean ago and there. Hence, the evidential mood may translate into English in the following way: it rained ago and it rained there. (From the speaker’s point of view or presence). Verbs with this mood cannot be dropped.

Obligatory mood: describes plea, desire or command depending on context. There is only one particle to express this mood. Other methods of expressing this mood include the equivalent of the word mustbefore the verb.

Volitive mood: is expressed by a volitive suffix. Two suffixes are used depending if the final syllable ends in a consonant sound or vowel sound. This mood expresses an action or state is desired, requested or aimed for. Another way of expressing this mood is through modal verbs such as wish or may.

Transitive versus intransitive

Certain verbs can only take a subject. In this case nouns do not take any articles. Other verbs can take an object (direct or indirect).

Direct objects follow the verb. Indirect objects can either follow or precede the direct object. Indirect objects can be preceded by prepositions including the indefinite preposition.

Indefinite preposition: this preposition marks the indirect object. It can also be used for dates, months and days of the week. In addition, it can also be used to describe experiences with technology, inanimate nouns and abstract nouns.

Prepositions

There are prepositions of location, motion, position, grammatical role and instrumental. Each preposition has one meaning and one use(except for the Indefinite preposition which is primarily used for the direct object). Each preposition function as one part of speech as well. Unlike in English which many of its prepositions has many uses with different meanings. For instrumental prepositions there are two words that both mean in English with but each have different meanings and uses. One is instrumental and the other is locative. Prepositions of grammatical role fulfill the role of grammatical case much like in English. Instrumental prepositions are used with nouns in which verbs carry their actions with. These nouns may be animate or inanimate. Some prepositions are proceeded by the definite article much like in English but could be dropped if understood from context.

Prepositions with other grammatical roles convey meanings of the genitive or possessive,  accusative via indefinite preposition, and the ablative which is conveyed with prepositions such as by or from. Articles may be dropped with prepositions that convey grammatical roles.

Relative clauses and participles

Relative clauses are used in a similar way participles are used in English. Articles are used to mark the subject in relative clauses. The noun that is being relativized requires an article. If the noun being relativized is moved after the verb a definite or indefinite article is required. The subject noun is immediately followed by pronoun or interrogative pronouns.

Prefixes and suffixes

Suffix for distributive numerals are divided in two for numbers ending in vowels or consonants.

Some suffixes change the part of speech a word belongs to. There are suffixes to change adjectives to nouns, nouns to adjectives, nouns to verbs, and verbs to nouns.

Some suffixes  also function as prefixes and vice versa which changes the meaning of the word. This is used primarily with verbs and nouns.

Conjunctions are not necessary if context is clear. This omission is only allowed between two verbs.

Demonstratives: come in animate and inanimate forms. The first group refers to people, animals and other life forms. The second group refers to objects or abstract nouns. Demonstratives do not inflect for number. They may also be used similarly to the definite article and may replace it in certain contexts where appropriate or definiteness is unknown. Demonstratives are also divided by distance depending if the object is close, far, hidden or behind something to the listener or speaker.

Alphabet

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo õ Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz