Lutanian

The conlang uses the Latin script - basic alphabet with various diacritics. It is a pluricentric language regarding pronunciation, vocabulary and writing.

The letter W [vé doule, wau] is not a part of the alphabet, but the letter J is included instead representing the sound / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/ with the alphabetical name / ͡jʝe/ or /je/. The alphabetic letter C is read /ts/ like the sound in German.

Main characteristics of pronunciation

The main values of consonants in stressed syllables are:

A /a/, E /ɛ/ ~ /e/, I, Y /i/, O /o/, U /u/ (as found in the alphabet)

â, î = /ə/

Note: i, î, and y can represent intervocalic /j/ (a semiconsonant). Word initially, i (or y) in front of a vowel is pronounced /j/. The diacritic ^ on the vowel u (û) indicates the semivowel sound /w/.

The circumflex on o (ô) denotes a long open pronunciation or a diphthong: /wo/ ~ /(w)ɔ:/ (in standard norm). In various dialects it can be pronounced differently, as /wa/ (also written -oa-) or /u:/ (also written ó).

The alphabetic consonants are pronounced mainly as in English (unless indicated otherwise, see below). B /b/, D /d/, G /ɡ/, P /p/, T /t/, K /k/ are not aspirated.

There are three ways to read the alphabet:

1) The conventional: add the vowel sound /e/ after consonants B, C /͡tse/, D, G*/ɡe/ ~ /ʒe/, J /je/ ~ /͡jʝe/, Nj (ň), /nje/, P, Q* /ke/ or /ku:/*, T, V* /ʋe/, X* /ʃe/ or /iks/*, Lj /ʎe/, Z /ze/~ /dze/. Add /ɛ/ ~ /e/ in front of consonant sounds: F /ɛ̯f:(ə)/, L /ɛ̯ɫ(ə)/ ~ /ɛ̯l(ə)/, M /ɛ̯m(ə)/, N /ɛ̯n(ə)/, R /ɛr:(ə)/, S /ɛ̯s:(ə)/ (long consonants are: /f:/, /r:/, /s:/)

Y= /ips/, used primarily as the conjunction "and", replaced by et /e/ either if the preceding word ends or the following word starts in a vowel.

Special consonants which are pronounced with the vowel: -a /a/: H /xa(k)/, K /ka:/ or /ka̯p˺/

Special consonant that can be pronounced with /e/ or /u/: Q /ke:/ or /ku:/, V /ʋe/ or /ʋu:/

2) The simplified first: add /e/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some differences are: F /f:e/, H /xe:/, L /le:/, S /s:e/ etc.

3) The simplified second: add /ə/ to every consonant sound, pronounced as explained. Some examples: H /xə/, L /lə/, S /s:ə/ etc.

Nasals - letters with ogonek diacritic (a, e, u with ogonek) are not included in the alphabet count as they are considered to be variants of the main vowel. They are pronounced the same in stressed and unstressed syllables:

Ą ą /ɑ̃/, non nasal variant /ɔ/,

Ę ę /ɛ̃/, non nasal variant /ɛ/, regionally /e:/

-on, alternative: Ų ų  /ɔ̃/, non-nasal variant /ɔ/, /on/, /ɔ(n)/.

These three letters are important as distinctive grammatical endings. They can sometimes appear inside a word root (like męs /mɛ̃:s/), but their pronunciation word internally can also be an oral equivalent of the vowel (similar or identical to a, e, u or o: męs /mɛ:s/ ~ /mẽ:s/).

Vowel reduction feature

Final syllable sound -e is reduced to /ə/ in an unstressed syllable, not applicable to diphthongs (like -ei) except dialectally. This is important for grammatical endings: -e (without diacritics) vs -ę. The exact distribution of stressed variants /ɛ/ vs /e/ and /o/ vs /ɔ/ is not significant, although it is suggested (sometimes by accent diacritics, see below). Unstressed -e- in other positions is /e/ in the standard variety, and /ə/ in certain dialects. Unstressed -o- is always /o/ in standard pronunciation (not /ɔ/).

Dialectally, variations are found with reduction of unstressed -e- in all syllables and also in the unstressed diphthong -ei-, reduction of unstressed -a- to /ɐ/ or /ə/, and/or unstressed -o- to /u/ (rare, region dependent), all by influence of the speakers' native languages.

Using accute and grave accents: The marked accent denotes the stressed (tonic) syllable. The existing forms are: á, é, í, ó, ú (with acute accent) and à, è, ò, ù (with grave accent).

Generally, the acute accent represents a slightly longer vowel in open syllables (like á /a:/), while the grave accent generally denotes a somewhat shorter vowel: à /a̯/ in closed syllables. As word final vowels, letters with accents may be used with grammatical value (as endings), so the brevity rule does not always apply (the grammar rule dictates pronunciation, like in the verbal infinitives: cantà /kan.'ta/ - to sing).

The acute or grave accent on e and o also have a recommended pronunciation with different qualities:

é /e/ and è /ɛ/ (as in French), ó /o/ and ò /ɔ/ (all recommended). The letter ô denotes a long, open sound /ɔ:/, or a diphthong /wɔ:/ ~ /wɔ:/ (recommended): as in: oôs/ous - eggs, dôs/dous/duos - two.

Monosyllabic words only may have acute or grave accent for grammatical reasons (example: bé - letter name, B, èsse - letter name, S).

Vowel combination: -ai- is pronounced as a monophthong /ɛ/, word finally /e/. This doesn't apply when diacritics are used: âi /əj/, ài /a̯j/, ái /a:j/, aí /a.'i/ (the latter example represents two syllables).

Diphthongs: diphthongs are formed with all of the vowels a, e, i, o, u except for the combinations: ae, oe, ai. The sound /ə/ makes the diphthongs /əj/ (âi, îi) and or /wə/ (uâ).

The strong components of the diphthongs are: a, e, o (/a/, /e/, /o/, "a" is the strongest), and the weak components are i, u. In diphtongs like ea, oa, e becomes the equivalent of weak -i- /j/, and o the equivalent of a semivocalic -u- /w/, so ea = /e̯a/ ~ /ja/, oa = ua = /wa/. If not marked by diacritics the weak (i, u) combinations are pronounced with the full first vowel: ui /uj/, iu /iw/, word initially iu-/ju/. The combinations eo and ao practically do not appear as they are identical in pronunciation to eu /ew/ and au /aw/. An accent mark may change the stressed part of the diphthong, or produce two separate syllables, as in eó /e̯o/ or /jo/ - identical to io /jo/; aí /a.'i/ - two syllables, as the vowel "a" cannot be made a weak part of a diphthong.

Some words morphologically have separate syllables in place of the diphthong, e.g. ei /'e.i/ or /e:j/ = they (from e + ending -i), eos /'e.os/ - them (from e- + -os), virtúe /ʋir.'tu.ə/ (stem + ending -e), melodíe /me.lo.'ði.ə/  ~ /mə-/.

Spelling considerations for the diphthong -ie

If the consonants D, N, R, T are followed by the diphthong -ie in an unstressed syllable, write ďe /djə/, ňe /ɲə/, ře /ɾjə/, ťe /tjə/. In stressed syllables you should write: dě /dje/, ně /nje/, rě /rje/, tě /tje/. With other consonants the unstressed form is written -ie /jə/, and the stressed form: -ě /je/. If the printing options are limited, every -ě can be replaced by -ie (alternative spelling).

Consonant sounds

We will explain consonants with diacritics, digraphs representing one sound and special sounds. With all consonants, word final devoicing may occur e.g. /b/ → /p/ etc., depending on the speaker.

B̌ b̌ (B with caron): /w/, identical to û /w/: example: pob̌l /powl/ (alternative script - B'/b' or B̌ and lowercase b').

C - /k/ in syllables ca, co, cu, câ /kə/, and in front of consonants like: cr e me /'kre:.mə/;

/s/ or /ts/ in syllables ce, ci, cî. Note: cai = /kaj/ (avoided, breaks the ai /ɛ/ vowel rule in favour  the ca /ka/ rule).

CC - follows the rule of C + consonant (like CTI /kt(s)i/, CCI /ksi/)

Ç - word initially and finally /͡ts/, regionally /s/, word-internally between vowels: /s/, after a consonant: /ts/.

G /ɡ/ in syllables ga, go, gu (+a, â, o or cons.), gă /ɡə/; /ʒ/ in syllables ge, gi, gî; /dʒ/ in word-final -eig /e̯dʒ/, -aig /a̯dʒ/ or /ɛ̯dʒ/, otherwise word finally /ɣ/ (recommended in unstressed syllables), or /k/, /k˺/, /ɡ/ (voicing in "liaison").

GU /ɡ/ in front of -i, -e, -î: gui /ɡi/, gue, guî; otherwise as other rules provide. In some areas (dialectally), GU + vowel always gives /g/.

TG - in intervocalic or word-final position: /dʒ/ (regionally spelt TJ)

Note*: gai = /ɡaj/, guai = /ɡɛ/, gûai /ɡwɛ/

J - pronounced as / ͡jʝ/ or  /j/. JJ is marked: /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/. TJ, CJ, KJ= /͡tʃ/. SJ = /ʃ/, ZJ = /ʒ/, GJ = /dʒ/, HJ = /ç/

Lj - /ʎ/ or regionally /j:/ ~ /jl/, (Spanish variant) /ʝ/ ~ /͡jʝ/, geminated (spelling): jlj /ʎ:/, regionally spelt: LH

H - mute (not pronounced), when pronunciation is needed it is written double: hh /x/ ~ /h/, as in the letter name: H: hhá /xa/.

Qu - /kw/ in syllables qua, quo, quâ, /k/ in syllables que, qui, quî. Note: quai = /kɛ/.

S - /s/, in intervocalic position /z/, even accross words (by linking). Regionally: always /s/. The geminated -SS- is always pronounced /s/.

X - /dz/ in syllables xa, xo, xu, (rare), /ʃ/ ~ /ɕ/ in syllables xe, xi, xî, xâ, eix /e(j)ʃ/, aix /a̯(j)ʃ/, and after T in all contexts (see TX).

May be /ks/ in internationalisms like taxi /'ta̯ksi/. Ortographically: xia /ʃa/ ~ /ɕa/, xiu /ʃju/~ /ɕ:u/ xio /ʃo/ ~ /ɕo/ (without diacritics).

** in -aix the a+i rule is broken in favour of the pronunciation: /a̯ʃ/, /ajʃ/.

* TX = /͡tʃ/ in all contexts.

Z - /z/,  only regionally /dz/.

The consonant D in intervocalic position can be pronounced as /ð/ - recommended.

The consonants D, N, R, T, have palatalised versions: Ď/ď /dj/~ /dʐ/, Ň/ň /ɲ/, Ř/ř /rj/ ~ /ɾj/, Ť/ť /tj/ ~ /tj/, used in front of vowels with a grammatical value. Alternative spellings are with an apostrophe or the tilde (~): D'/d', N'/ n' or Ñ/ñ, R'/r' and T'/t'. Since the ň can be geminated (-ňň-), the apostrophe would be used only once after double n: aňňos / añños / ann'os /'a̯.ɲ(.)os/.

Gemminate consonants, if they appear, can be pronounced long, e.g. -SS- /s:/, -RR- /r:/. They are mainly used to clearly indicate short (closed) syllables (CVC). Consonant clusters tend to be simplified in most "dialects", yet not so much in the standard norm. The final -s (grammatically important) is pronounced at the expense of other consonants (nasals, or cluster-middle consonants), except when word function or case is evident from other words in a phrase. Consonant encounters across word boundaries also tend to be undergo assimilation.

Word stress (accent)

Variable nominal words (nouns, adjectives, pronouns) receive stress on the penultimate syllable of their full plural nominative form (if the word ends in a vowel + -s), and generally the same place of stress is maintained in all inflected forms (including different genders of adjectives).

Following the rule above

- most singular words ending in a vowel have stress on the penultimate vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-), and

- most singular words ending in a consonant (including etymological, but dropped final -n, -l, -r) have stress on the last vowel or diphthong (except if it is -i- or -u-).

E.g.

cugine - cugines (subject form sg./pl.) - kitchen(s) /ku̯. 'ʒi.nə(s)/

cătăine - cătenes - chain(s) /kə. 'təj.nə/ /kə. 'te:.nəs/

natiú[n] - natiunes - nation(s) /na̯.'tsju.nəs/

natíu (natif, natí) - natíos - native /na̯.' tiw/ /na̯.'ti̯.os/ (adj. masculine sg./pl.)

The adjective forming suffix -ic- /i̯k/ and its variant -ec- /ək/ cannot be stressed, so the stress moves one syllable to the left in these forms: històric, classic /i̯.'stɔ̯.ri̯k/ /'kla̯.s:ik/. The default penultimate syllable stress in these masculine singular subject forms is maintained in all other forms: hist ò ricos, cl a ssicos.

Exceptions include the instances when the vowel which should receive stress is -i- or -u- or belongs to a so-called unstressed syllabic infix (mostly -u- or /ə/):

c o nsul /'kon.sul/ - a consul, h o măns /'ɔ.məns/ - of a man, man's, c o rpures /'kur.purəs/

Action doer morpheme syllable -or, -ur is unstressed when no ending follows (with -Ø ending), but stressed in other forms. This creates an exception to the accentuation rule, which is not followed in all regions.

pintur/pintur - pintores - painter(s); de pintôre /pin'two:.rə/ - from a painter

The action doer suffix -ul- cannot be stressed: consul - consules - a consul, de consule - from a consul

Verbal forms have the stress determined by grammatical form, but the default stress is on the penultimate syllable of the full form (also zero elements must be counted). The verbal forms have a feature of not pronouncing the final syllable -e is plural conjugation forms (which is also counted as a syllabic element).

cant-u or cant (-Ø) I sing (stem + ending).

Grammar

$1. Nouns and adjectives

Lutanian nouns and adjectives distinguish:

a) gender (masculine/M, feminine/F, neuter or neutral/N)

b) number (singular and plural)

c) case (grammatical and euphonic)

d) definiteness (definite and indefinite, through form and the usage of articles)

The default word order is S-V-O.

Lutanian nouns are divided in four groups (I - IV) based on their morphology and assigned characteristics (e.g. gender). Adjectives have the sane morphology as nouns (of groups I - III), but are organised in only two groups.

The genders are distributed as follows:

- group I - F, group II - M or N (animate -M, inanimate M or N), group III - F or M+N, group IV - F. The feminine gender nouns can be animate or inanimate. M and N nouns can be selected based on Latin roots or arbitrarily/euphonically. Animate nouns will be masculine (not neuter) except for some nouns which do not make explicit reference to biological sex, like animal (group III), fant (group III - child).

Most nouns /adjectives distinguish at least two grammatical - functional and euphonic forms: subject form (lexical form or the nominative) and non - subject form, which is typically preceded by a preposition - prepositional [case] form.

In the euphonic declension, a singular number noun can have the ending zero (-Ø ) or a vocalic ending (-a, -e, -u).

Group I nouns always have a non-zero ending: -a for the definite form and -e /ə/ for the indefinite singular form (originating from a phonetic reduction of -a to -ă /ə/, ortographically always -e). Example: (la) casa / une case - the house / a house

The subject (nominative form - singular ) has the default endings: -a (definite, group I), -Ø (no ending, groups II - IV). E.g.

casa - house (group I), mur - wall (group II), nuit - night (group III)

The subject ending can be a non-zero for certain phonological and grammatical reasons (to emphasize gender or definiteness) group II -u, group III/IV -e. The given vowels (-a, -u, -e) are called thematic endings for the respective groups.

Examples: t e mplu - neuter gender - group II (also phonologically induced ending), hospit a l(e) - neuter gender - group III.

cris e - crisis (F gender, phonologically induced ending, from Lat. cris is),

nuit - night (F gender, no phonologically induced ending, from Lat. nox ).

The vowels -u and -e (as thematic) are optional/euphony based for neuter gender nouns (in groups II and III) and in group IV nouns (which are of F gender). The vocalic ending (-a or -e as definite/indefinite) is mandatory for group I nouns in singular (which are feminine).

The prepositional form (or case) in singular has the default thematic vowel endings: -a (definite, group I), -u (group II), -e (groups III/IV).

Whenever a singular noun is preceded by a preposition (with exceptions for direct/indirect objects), it can have a thematic ending (characteristic of its group). The ending -a is mandatory, others are optional (euphony based):

în casa - in (the) house (group I), în mund(u) - on the world (group II), în nuit(e) - in the night (group III), în face /în faç (group IV).

Group IV noun stems usually end in -i- (stressed or unstressed). The unstressed stem-final -i- is orthographically dropped if the ending is -e(s) or Ø, with possible palatalization effect on the preceding consonant, in all noun groups, e.g.

faç (stem faci- + -Ø) - the face

soç (stem soci + -Ø) - partner (M), compare: con sociu /'so(t)sju/ - with a partner.

soce (from soci + -e) - partner (F), compare: con socia /'so(t)sja/ - with a partner.

Other frequent sound changes found in nominal words are:

a) loss of an original stem final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. pą /pɑ̃:/ ~ /pɔ:/, oblique: con pan(e) /'pa:n(ə)/ - with bread (gr. III, M), mą /mɑ̃:/ ~ /mɔ:/, oblique: în man(u) (II, M), in a hand, natiú - nation,

fi (from etymological fi[lj]) - oblique con fiu -with the boy (II), compare F form con filja - systematically maintained consonant -lj-;

ami[c] - oblique con amiu /a.'miw/ (ami[c] + -u) - with a friend (M, gr II), compare F form con am i a (systematic loss of -c-)

b) vocalisation of an original stem-final consonant, if the ending is -Ø, e.g. riu -Ø (from Latin riv-us), oblique în riu (analysed as ri(v)- + ending -u).

c) diphthongisation of stressed stem vowel -o- or -u- and -e-:

- group I: stressed -o-/-u- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -a, or -ą: une scole - la scoala /'skwa.la/ - school

- group III (F/N): stressed -o- > -oa- in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e, -ę or -a: une flor, flur - de floare /'flu̯a.rə/ - from a flower

- group III (M anim.): stressed -o-/-u- > -ô- /wo:/ in long stem final syllables if the ending is -e: un p i ntur - de pintôre - from a painter.

These changes do not occur in the plural nor when -o-/-u- is followed by -n-: avion /a'ʋjɔ̃(n)/~/a'ʋjo:(n)/, /'u:(n)/, leon.

Nouns of group II (u-nouns by Latin heritage) which are designated as neuter gender by the speaker, can also optionally have the ending -e (singular), if it would make them more similar to their English or French language equivalents. E.g.

lu templu / lu temple - the temple (group II or III), pal a u - pal a ce (group II or III) (consonantic sound change - stem palatsi- → palaçi- + -u/-e)

lu vidriu / lu v i dre /'ʋiðrə/- glass (group II or III).

Some borrowings with the ending -o (radio, studio) are treated as neuter nouns, and the prepositional form takes the ending -u: în studiu.

Certain male names can act the same way (being treated as M gender): Bruno - con Brunu or con Bruno (with Bruno).

The direct object form marking (accusative) is not mandatory, and it can be:

a )  identical to the subject form (inanimate non-feminine and all plural)

b ) similar to the non-subject form (only in sg.) - thematic, with nasal ending employed for all animate, all feminine gender nouns and all proper nouns in sg.

Nasal endings correspond to their oral counterparts by group: I -ą /ɑ̃/, II -on /ɔ̃/, III and IV: -ę /ɛ̃/.

The genitive case singular

To express a possessive relation or partition you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  de + noun  (for abstracts terms), or noun +  a(L) + noun .

E.g. une t a ce de v i n(u) - a glass of wine,   c a rta di acc o rd(iu) - an agreement letter, amic a(l) fiu - a friend of the boy.

Optional, inherent endings for genitive nouns in singular are: -i (F), -s (M/N gender). The preposition al either way precedes a noun of masculine or neuter gender (to avoid confusion with the plural).

Most nouns of groups I and IV (i-stems) can receive any ending besides -a (not possible in IV) on a base form ending with -e- (the intervening -e-):

case + -i = c a sei /'ka:ze(j) / - of the house (I), filje + -i = fi ljei - of the girl (I), fac(i)-+-e-+ -i = f a cei /'fa̯t.͡tsje(j)/ - of the face (IV),

Andr e a /an'dre.a/ - proper F name, Andre- + -i = Andr e i - Andrea's

An alternative form for (F) stems ending in -n-, -m-, -r-, -l-, a palatal or the vowel -i- is to add only -i:

filja - filjei or filji - of a girl, Luna - moon, Lunei or Luni - of the Moon, El e na - (F proper name) > El e nei / Eleni - to Elena, Italia > It a liei or It a lii - of Italy.

In group III F gender noun stem can simply receive the ending -i, but marked -ei is also possible and optional for all (frequent for animate nouns):

flor + -i = fl o ri - to a flower, actrí + -(e)i = actr i i, actríei of the actress.

Examples for masculine and neuter: al murs - of the wall, al cămps /'kəm(p)s/ - of the camp, al a ctors /'at.turs/ - of the actor.

If the ending -s is not phonetically applicable, only the thematic singular ending is used for a genitive: e.g. al templu - of the temple.

In indefinite phrases, the preposition al /als helps to distinguish singular from weak plural (in -s) of M and N nouns:

al murs - of the wall, als murs - of the walls.

The -s genitive can be formed from certain proper names (of any gender, if convenient), without prepositions:

Carmen - Carmens (F), Bruno - Brunons /'bru.nɔ̃(n)s/, Brunu 's (M).

The dative case singular - indirect object

To express an indirect object (dative), or possession (genitive), if convenient, you can use a prepositional construction: noun +  a + noun . Examples:

a muru - to the wall, towards the wall,  a fiu - to the boy, a Brunu - to Bruno/of Bruno/Bruno's (possessive form).

Optional, inherent endings for dative nouns in singular are same as for the genitive of feminine gender, and same as the thematic endings for M/N genders (as given above). The preposition a is essentially not required to introduce a singular indirect object, but frequently needed for clarity.

( a ) filjei -  to  a girl,  uni gienei - to a woman,  li  filjei - to the girl

The plural form of nouns

The plural of nouns is formed by adding "thematic" endings to noun stems:

-es /əs/ - groups I, III, IV: (la) casa - (les) cases /'ka:.zəs/ - house(s), filja - filjes - girl(s), flor - flores - flower(s) (III), faç - faces (IV).

-os /os/, /us/ - group II: (el) mur - (los) muros - wall(s), templu/temple - templos/temples (II or III), riu (from Lat. riv-us) -rios, rius (from Lat. rivos).

A weak ending -s is used in euphonic contexts for M and N nouns, e.g. mur - murs (wall, walls). In a euphonic context, the ending -os can be pronounced (and written) -us (murus, rius, estudius). The definite article (M/N) is always written los and pronounced in two ways: /los/ or /lus/.

Certain "borrowings", insufficiently adapted to regular patterns, usually have the plural ending -s: taxi - t a xis, metró - metrós, a lbum - a lbums, café - cafés (all of neuter gender).

An optional (euphonic) ending for nouns preceded by a preposition (excluding direct objects) is the non-thematic -is (for all groups). E.g.

de muris - from walls.

Genitive plural can be expressed with the noun ending -is, without a preposition: e.g.

casa canis - the house of dogs, "dogs' house".

Adjectives

A lexical adjective has semantic forms for all three genders (M/F/N), but they might not be fully distinctive in forms of the singular and/or plural.

Adjectives correspond to noun forms of groups I - III (endings -a, -u, -e), and they are classified in two groups.

1st group or dual-theme adjectives change like nouns of group I in their feminine form (endings -a/-e and -es), and nouns of group II in the masculine and neuter forms (endings -Ø/-u and -os). The feminine gender form is always distinctive.

E.g. une filje nălte - la filja nălta - les filjes înaltes - a/the tall girl(s)

un mur înalt - el mur înalt - los muros nălt(o)s - a/the high wall(s)

u(nu) templu nălt(u) - lu templu nălt(u) - los templos nălt(o)s - a/the high temple(s).

un' hospital(e) înalte - l ' hospital(e) înalt(u) - los hospitales nălt(o)s - a/the high hospital(s) (group III noun - neuter)

The endings -e and -u are optional (for N gender nouns/adjectives) and are distributed euphonically. In a complete syntagm, usually the full inflections are kept in all nouns, and in all terms if the agreement endings are different (examples 2,3,4).

In the genitive and dative, adjectives usually receive weak endings (except the strong -a), which correspond to the following feminine forms:

pôrta casei nălte - the gates of a building - tall     GEN. sg.: F noun -ei or -i; adj -e

a filjei/ filji nălti - to a girl - tall                                     DAT. sg. F noun -ei or -i; adj. -i

2nd group or e-thematic (mono-) adjectives change like nouns of group III in all genders (endings -Ø/-e and -es). The inflected forms can be identical for all genders, but the nominative (subject sg.) form can receive an optional ending -e for the feminine or neuter gender, while it is always -Ø for masculine (animate) nouns.

M: un parc  verd    -     el parc verd  -    los parcos verd(e)s - a/the green park(s)

F: une flor verd(e) -   la flor verd(e) -   les flores verdes - a/the green flower(s)

N: u mar(e) verd(e) -  lu mar(e) verd(e) - los mares verd(e)s - a/the green sea(s)

§2. Articles and definiteness

In a semantic sense, the articles are not obligatory in Lutanian, their usage depends on the speaker. Syntactically, a minimum usage of determiners may be obligatory.

Nouns (or adjectives) ending in -e cannot be used without a determiner or some other part of a syntagm (preposition, adjective, article or other):

e.g. une case (I), la crise (III), în hospitale - in hospital. A name of an object or a proper name - Hospital(e) central(e) (a syntagm)

Definite morphology

Certain nouns exhibit separate indefinite and definite singular forms, others do not. In group I nouns, there is a systematic distinction between -a forms (definite) and -e forms (indefinite): une case - a house                        casa - (the) house

Some group III nouns may take the ending -a for the definite form:

a ) neuter nouns derived from Greek (stem in -ém-): (u) problem(e) - a problem              problema - (the) problem, pl. problemes

b ) agent nouns in -ist-Ø (M or F): artist(e), dentist(e) (group I - F or III - M)   > artista, dentista (M or F definite)

c ) nouns with phonological final -e in the nominative, like crise > crisa (but only to represent an oblique - non-subject definite form).

A subgroup of nouns in group III changes the final consonant s > t for the definite form, e.g. une pars - (la) part - a/the part, (-) gens - people, (la) gent - the people (collective noun).

Articles

Lutanian articles are: definite (stem -l-) or indefinite (stem un- > one).

Usage

General (generic) terms are considered definite and the article is optional (especially in the plural), however, they might be syntactically necessary (for terms ending in -e (see above).

Proper names of people, objects or abstract concepts are also considered definite but they do not bear the definite article (except for object/concept names that might also be considered common terms): e.g.(l') Hospital central, los Estaus Unius.

Proper names (e.g. countries) that contain the conjunction "and" do not bear the article in any circumstance: Trinitat y Tobago, Antigua et Barbuda.

Oblique articles (possessive genitive/dative) may be necessary even in proper names (not of people) as to provide sub-definition of terms (or the "direction" of property).

Indefinite articles specifically indicate a new term (unknown to speakers) or a random item from a set. They are never obligatory and don't have plural forms. They are pro-clitics to nominal words.

The indefinite article

The indefinite article is always used before a noun or a nominal phrase.

* The prepositional case form. Complex elision - between vowels. The form is identical to the elided generic preposition na. ** Syntactic particle (if full article is not used).

A preposition is placed before the indefinite article, e.g. d'unu muru - from a wall, spr(e)-una filja /sprju.na'fi̯.ʎa/ - about a girl, într-un 'hospitale - in a hospital, într-una casa - in a house.

The marking of the direct object in nouns and adjectives is optional, and the indefinite articles are non-nasal: un/unu (M/N - agrees with the noun), a /a/ or una (F).

Syntactically, the prepositions per, ad, contre indicate a direct object, so the article una is acceptable: per + a = per a, pra, per + u(n) - pru(n), contr-a, contr-una, ad a (ad una), ad-un (+ a noun in the basic form).

The definite article in Lutanian can be:

a) pro-clitic to a term (for the subject and direct object, nom./acc. cases), or

b) (optionally) placed after the noun (as a suffix), when the noun is preceded by a preposition. In noun-adjective phrases, the definite article usually comes attached to the noun, and exceptionally an adjective (for emphasis). * The oblique case definite articles may optionally be used as suffix forms (prepositional + dative case). **The genitive singular article is always a SUFFIX.

The suffix article forms are slightly euphonically adapted - always unstressed: thematic case sg.: M/N: -lu/-le, F: -la/-ja/-a, dative singular -i, plural (from lis) : -eis (F), -iis (M/N).

The suffix is added to singular thematic forms of nominal words with the adaptation of the definite article in the following manner:

M/N nouns in -u + -lu, -e + -le; F nouns ending in -lja, -ja (-ia) or a diphthong + -la, -e + -a = -ea or just > -a; otherwise -a + -ja.

Example: în t e mplulu - in the temple, con fi ljala - with the girl, în c a saja - in the house.

If an adjective follows a noun ending in -a (F group I) with the suffix definite article (-la, -ja), the suffix definite article will detach an become the interpositional definite article a (linking the noun and the adjective). Ex. con filja a puitra - with the beautiful girl.

Any diphthong in the stressed syllable of the root are reverted to an original monophthong (oa > o, ea > e, etc.), e.g. spre floare + -a = spre fl o rea (or*) fl oa ra (-e + -a = -a) - about the flower, con pint ô re + -le = con pint o rele - with the painter.

For the indirect object the suffix sg. article is -i, the noun ending is either -i or -u (resulting in forms: -ii, -ui). Ex. (a) filjei + -li = (a) filjii - to the girl, a ctoru (III) + -i > act o rui /ak.'to:ruj/ - to the actor.

In the plural prepositional and dative cases (when any preposition precedes the noun), the definite article lis turns into gendered sufixes -eis (F), -iis (M), or euphonical -uis (Neutral, group II), through the following derivation:

de muris + lis > de m u riis - from the walls (M/N), de cases + lis > de c a seis (F) - from the houses, euphonical (N) în templos + lis > în t e mpluis - in the temples.

Agreement in the genitive and dative

The genitive and dative articles have been levelled in gender of the singular, taking the masculine/neuter form as a sample. In the plural, there is a gender distinction in the definite article (common suffixes -eis, -iis).

The indefinite article sg. - genitive/possessive unu + -i = unui /u.nuj/ - of a, dative un- + -i = uni /u.ni/ - to a... (PRO-CLITIC only)

The definite article sg. - genitive/possessive lu + -i = -lui /luj/ - of the, dative l- + -i = li - to the... (-lui SUFFIX only, li - pro-clitic or enclitic as -i)

The word following the genitive sg. article (def. or indf.) will have a weak ending, -e or -u (depending on group and gender).

The word following the article uni or pro-clitic li may have a normal ending (-ei, -i, -u). Ex. uni filjei puitri - to a beautiful girl; li filjei puitri - to the beautiful girl. Using the pro-clitic dative article eliminates the IO preposition a, but not other complex prepositions:

e.g. face a scolii > face li scolei     - towards/facing the school (Dat.)

The word following the suffix definite article -i will have a weak ending, -i or -u. Ex. (a) filjii puitri - to the beautiful girl, a(l) act o rui famòu - to the famous actor.

The word following the plural suffix definite article will have any euphonic ending, in standard -os, -es or -s (depennding on gender). Ex. (a) fi ljeis puitres - to the beautiful girls; a fiiis bons - to the good boys.

The definite plural genitive (possessive) is constructed with the noun ending -is (containing the suffix definite article), without preposition (similar to the simple form): casa canis (+ lis) > casa caniis - the house of the dogs.

§3. Personal pronouns

Lutanian personal pronouns (corresponding to English I, you, we, etc., but also me, us) distinguish the categories of number (sg/pl), gender (in the 3rd person only) and case (subject/object/prepositional). They do not have the category of definiteness (since they are understood only as definite).

The genitive case of personal pronouns is defective, mostly full forms of POSSESSIVE pronouns are used, e.g. of me > my, mine.

The personal pronouns in the nominative case or SUBJECT pronouns are: Stressed subject pronouns. Notice that the plural does not end in -s. Formal address: Vy or Ju (2pl) (akin to English you).

Unlike other words, in the plural, the nominative (subject) pronouns end in -i/-y (M/N) or -e (F). In other cases these forms do end in -s.

There is no direct equivalent for the inanimate 3rd person pronoun it, as used in English. For abstract concepts, the adverbial pronoun hi can be used (sg. and pl.), or simply the M pronouns il (sg.) / ei (pl.), translated as it.

Subject pronouns are stressed, independent words. The 1.sg pronoun jo /jo/, /ju/ can also function as a pro-clitic (unstressed) pronoun.

Subject pronouns are not obligatory with conjugated verbs. In some dialects, a novel unstressed subject pronouns may accompany verbs: jo, ti, ni, vi/ju.

The pronoun of formal address is Vy or Ju (2pl) - when referring to one or more persons. In some regions Ju is used only in a formal setting, otherwise vy is used.

The direct object pronouns (accusative) have a set of stressed, independent forms and a set of clitic (unstressed) forms, which are attached to verbs. Alt. forms (spellings): tb'e, tb'é (b = /w/), sb'e, sb'é, nôos, nôs, nuos (/wo/ ~ /ow/), vôos, vôs, vuos. Jous - 2sg/pl formal.

Most of the forms of the 1st and 2nd persons need the syntactical preposition  a  in certain environments. The endings of the plural and 3rd person sg/pl. are similar to nouns of groups I (F) and II (for M/N).

Reinforced (strong) forms: m ă ne (1sg), t o be (2sg), s o be (3sg reflexive), j o non (3sg reduplicated M/N), joną (3sg F)- never cary a preposition.

The clitic (weak) pronouns in the accusative (direct object) are the following The elided pro-clitic forms include: m', t', s', l' (=lu/la), which occur in front of a vowel.

With imperative and gerund verb forms, the same clitics (except 1st/2nd pl.) are placed after the verb and hyphenated. In imperatives, the form ens (1pl) changes to -năs!, while us (2pl) changes to -vus!

The unstressed se can be reflexive or impersonal (passive), e.g. il se lua(t) - he rises (gets up), se sa(pt) - it is known (passive present). The pronoun se is not used in the imperative.

The strong pronouns in the dative (indirect object) are the following Alternative spellings include the popular: mī, tī, sī, leis; joi (> jei 3sg formal), joi(s) - formal you. Most of the given dative forms need the syntactical preposition  a  in certain environments. Mij, tij - usually in front of a vowel, or emphatically.

Reinforced (strong) forms: ilui /'ilu.i/ - to him, elei /'e.le.i/ - to her, n o uă /'nɔ.w:ə/ - to us, v o uă - to you never cary a preposition. In front of a vowel: ilui /'iluj/, elei /'elej/, n o ua or nobi /'nɔw.a ͜   / /noβj͜   /; v o ua or vobi.

The clitic (weak) pronouns in the dative (indirect object) are the following In front of a vowel, the clitic pronouns are hyphenated to the verb form, and mostly do not change (except for 1st/2nd pl., which become ni- and vi-).

The form le (le-) is exclusive to feminine gender, but the form li is also acceptable in any context. You can use Le when you talk about a person formally (regardless of gender/sex), e.g. Le don a si u ru /d a mei - I give to Mr./Mrs. ...

With imperative verbs, the same clitics (except 1st/2nd pl.) are placed after the verbal form and hyphenated. In imperatives, the form nă (1pl) changes to -ną!/nɑ̃/, while vă (2pl) changes to -vą! /ʋɑ̃/.

Usage: The clitic dative pronoun is obligatory in relation to the main verb, even if the indirect object is overtly stated (using a noun or a stressed pronoun). E.g. Le don a filjei - litt. I give-her - to the girl ...

The prepositional case of personal pronouns is identical to the dative case, except for the 3rd person sg, which is similar to the nominative (subject):

e.g. con jel /jel/ - with him, con ea/ja /'e.a/ or /ja/ (both can be used); con jeis - with them. Only a stressed form of prepositional pronouns exists.

Usage of stressed object pronouns

The stressed direct object pronouns are used either with or without the preposition a, according to a few rules:

1) the preposition a is not obligatory with pronoun forms - mnjé, tué, sué, other 3rd person forms in standard word order (after the verb), nor with forms nous, vous when used before the verb (inversion form)

2) the preposition a is obligatory with forms mnje /mɲə/, tûe /twə/, sûe /swə/, also all 3rd person forms when used in inverted word order (before the verb).

3) the preposition a is not used with reinforced pronouns măne, tobe, sobe, and is optional (emphatic) before 3rd person jonon/joną.

The unstressed DO pronoun replaces the direct object or a stressed pronoun, e.g.

Anna c a nta(t) a cançon. /kan'͡tsɔ̃(n)/ Anna is singing a song ( DO, F sg.)     >   Anna la canta. DO clitic pronoun, F sg. (la).

The unstressed DO pronoun is not used if the DO is overtly stated.

The stressed indirect object pronouns (dative) are used either with or without the preposition a, according to a few rules:

1) the preposition a is not obligatory with pronoun forms - mii, tii, sii, when used before the verb (inversion form) and immediately followed by the corresponding clitic pronoun (mii-mi, tii-ti, sii-si), or when used immediately after the conjugated verb (see examples).

2) the preposition a is obligatory with all strong dative pronouns (except for the reinforced forms) in standard word order (coming after the verb),

3) the preposition a is not used with reinforced pronouns ilui - to him, elei - to her, n o uă - to us, v o uă - to you all.

The unstressed dative pronoun is obligatory in relation to the main verb, whether the IO is overtly stated or not (by a pronoun or noun/adjective).

Examples:

Anna  mi  canta(t) a cançon (DO)  a mii (< IO). Anna is singing(-me*) a song [to me]. Double expression of the indirect object (the clitic mi is obligatory).

Anna  li  scrie(t) a cartą (DO)  a  Jonu (IO). Anna is writing(-him*) a letter [to Jon]. Clitic - li - to him is obligatory.

The preposition a is obligatory before an overt IO when not immediately following the verb. Confer:

Anna  li  canta(t) ( a )  Jonu  (< IO) a cançon (DO). Anna is singing (to him - to Jon) a song (DO). The preposition a is emphatic.

Combining unstressed object pronouns

The dative and accusative unstressed pronouns can be combined in front of after the conjugated verb, as to replace overtly stated objects.

There are rules about the order of combined clitic pronouns and the phonetic/orthographic modifications that occur in the combination.

1) If the DO pronoun is a third person (excluding impersonal se), the order of pronouns is IO - DO (dative - accusative), with phonetic modifications of IO pronouns: mi > mî, ti > tî, si > sî, le > lje, lis > els.

2) If the DO pronoun is a 1st or 2nd person (or impersonal se), the order of clitics depends on the persons involved (not the cases): impersonal se - 2nd person - 1st person - 3rd person (only two pronouns can combine).

Furtherly, certain IO and DO pronouns are made identical: mi, me > me; ti, te > te; si, se > se; li, le > le, and the change from lis to els (IO only) is kept.

Other clitic pronouns are kept as original. Elision of the vowel -e and -ă is mandatory before another vowel.

Examples: Anna  mi  canta(t)  a cançon  (DO). Anna is singing a song to me. Anna mî la  canta. /mə.la/ Anna is singing  it  to me.

The table illustrates all the possible combinations: * vă + ens - us to you = v'ens or ve'ns. **Se us - PASSIVE: (it) you to; no elision, alt. se vus

The combinations with 1st and 2nd person pronouns are avoided, since they tend to be ambiguous.

Example: Anna te nă presenta(t). Anna introduces you ("te") to us ("nă").

Anna te me presenta(t). Anna introduces you ("te") to me ("me"). (the verb indicates reciprocity).

Adverbial pronouns

Adverbial pronouns are used to replace a circumstantial part of a speech (attributed to the main S-V-O structure). They only have unstressed (weak) forms. Long prepositional phrases can be replaced by a monosyllabic form, avoiding the need for repetition.

En /ən/ - genitive/ablative -replaces circumstantial complements introduced by the prepositions from, of, about, or an indefinite or incomplete quantity (countable or uncountable - some of..., three of,...etc.)

Ho /o/ /u/ - direct object indefinite (acc.) - replaces a part of speech or a concrete term that represents the DO - in English most commonly it.

Hi /i/ - replaces a mentioned or known location ("there") or other circumstances.

The use of these pronouns is generally reserved for indefinite concepts (because personal pronouns indicate a definite term), and it is not obligatory.

They are pro-clitic, only in imperatives and gerunds used as enclitics.

The weak pronouns en and ho can be combined to replace two complements (parts of speech) at once (en  ho  =  it  of that,  it  from that, etc.).

An adverbial pronoun can be combined with a weak personal pronoun (object pronoun). * By a phonetic modification, els represents either the DO or IO plural (los, les, lis). Also: m', t', s' can represent either the DO or IO (sg.).

Example: il parla spre filja - he is talking about (the) girl. En parla. EN - about the girl (pronoun replacement).

il a parlat spre filja - he talked about the girl - N'ha parlat. N' = about the girl (pronoun replacement).

Vad a (la) ciutat. I am going to the city. Hi vad. I am going there (HI - to the city).

The pronoun hi can be written as y, only not in pronoun combinations: Hi vad/Y vad.

The pronouns hi and ho preceded by a vowel of the imperative verb become zi and zo:

V a î-zi! Go there!

The pronoun-verb compound Hi-a (y-a) means there is/there are. The negative form is: Nu-i-a/Nu-y-a, or reinforced by repetition: Hi nu-i-a.

Occasionally, a third pronoun is added to a two-pronoun combination. E.g.

Se le parla spre filja. It is being said to him/her about the girl (passive). Se l' en parla. EN = about the girl (pronoun replacement).

§4. Lutanian verbs

Lutanian verbs

Lutanian verbs may express the category of

1) tense - present, past and future

2) mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)

3) voice  (active and passive)

4) aspect (imperfective, perfective or future - partially)

The conjugated forms have personal endings (person 1-2-3 number sg./pl.)

The nominal forms are - the infinitive, participle and gerund.

The verbs are divided into four groups or conjugations based on the theme vowels used in the present indicative: a, e and i (unlike the nouns system).

Group I: -a- /a/, group II: -e- /ə/, stressed /ɛ/ (short), /e:/ - long, group III: athematic verbs; group IV: -i-.

Group III borrows vowels from other groups or just the vowel is omitted.

Typical structure of a verb form is:

2* - may be omitted.

A typical word used as a verb ends in part 3 (termination). When used as a nominal (e.g. past participle - adjective) the form could possibly have a 4th part (indication of gender/number or case).

The significance of thematic vowels (position 2): the vowel -a- indicates a grammatically imperfective aspect, while -i- indicates a perfective or future aspect.

The semantic part plays an important role, so the verb dormí (to sleep) can be imperfective in the present tense.

Changing the typical vowel or stress on the different parts can indicate a tense/aspect change, e.g. :

I  a → e present indicative → present subjunctive

present  indicative → pres. subjunctive and/or  imperfect indicative

II e → ea, ia /ja/

IV i → ia, ie (word internally, word finally)

Due to phonetic rules these alternations are not fully visible in most verbs.

Through sound changes, the usual endings found in nouns are re-used in verbs: -es, -is (2nd person sg. present).

E.g. Lat. cantas → ↑*cantăs /əs/ → cantes - you are singing

Lat. quod cantes → ↑ că cantis - that you sing

Representative forms of verbs

Certain verb forms can be homographic and/or homophonous with different meanings (depending on stress).

For regular verbs, a verb root + thematic vowel (stressed) represents the infinitive, while a stressed root and an unstressed thematic vowel marks the present indicative (3rd person singular).

cantà /kan'ta:/ - to sing        il canta /'ka:n.ta/ - he is singing

monè /mo'ne:/ - to warn      il mone /'mo:nə/ - he is warning

dormí /dor'mi:/ - to sleep      il dormi /'do:r.mi/ - he is sleeping

Both of these forms can serve as representative forms. Regular group III verbs are usually presented with the vowel -e:

currè /kur're:/ - to run           il curre /'kur:ə/ - he is running

scriè /skri.'e:/ - to write         il scrie /'skri.ə/ - he is writing

There are also irregular infinitives with root stress and an added element (formant) -ua /wa/ or -e(a) /ja/, where -a is a floating syntactic element which can also be used as a preposition:

veua /'ʋe.w:a/ - to see (II), from a root *ved + -a (with sound change - veu̯)

creua /'kre.w:a/ - to believe (III), from a root *cred + -a (with sound change - creu̯)

tinea /'tĩ:n.ja/ - to (with)hold (III), from tin- or ten- + -e (infl. by Latin tenēre) + -a

Many other verbs have acquired these infinitive endings by analogy (mostly -ua).

The auxilliary verbs to be and to have:

esse(a) /'es:ə/, /'esja/ - to be, aure(a) /'aw.rə/ /'awrja/, /'or.ja/ - to have

The present indicative

The present indicative is formed from the present stem (root + theme vowel a, e, i) and personal endings: -Ø, -s, -(t), -me(s), -te(s), -u(t). The stress in on the last vowel of the root, except in 1/2pl where it falls on the theme vowel.*

Due to phonetic changes, the resulting forms are not straightforward.

- The stressed theme vowel in 1pl, 2pl (we, you all) has been levelled to -ai- / 'ɛ/ in all groups (originally from conjugation II), the vowel -i- is kept in front of stressed /'ɛ/ as a semivowel /j/: -a-, -e- → -ai- / 'ɛ/, -i- → -iai-  / 'jɛ/: Lat. cantamus → cantaime(s) /kan'tɛ̯m(ə)[z ͜   ]/

- The theme vowel -a- in front of -s- neutralizes to /ə/ (cantăs → cantes), and disappears in 1sg and in front of another stressed vowel (1/2 pl: [a] → ai)

The final consonants -t, -s are used for the purpose of liaison (optional, usually not added if preposition a(d) follows).

The most prominent forms are 1pl/2pl with stressed short -(i)ai- /'(j)ɛ̯/,  in front of -me, -te, equalized in all conjugations (thematic -i- stays as a semivowel).

Using the past participle in the present tense (1st person sg.)

The 1st person sg. of the present tense may have endings that show aspect, the general ending is -Ø.

1st conjugation: -Ø or -u (phonologically induced), e.g. jo cant(u), jo aflu (I think, I consider), jo parl(u) - I speak.

2nd conjugation: the present stem has a thematic vowel -e that acts like an e-yod.

Pattern A: It can be omitted (jo mon - I am warning) or turned into -c-/-g-: jo monc(u) /monk(u)/ - I warn (perfective or iterative). -c /k/ can be added to roots ending in -r-, -n-, -l-, preceded by a vowel.

Pattern B: Certain verbs can use the Past Participle (if it ends in -s) as a present tense (perfective) form of the 1st person sg. Example: manè - to stay, remain (II).

Jo mans(u) - I stay ... Jo man(-Ø) - I am staying   (perfective /imperfective present)

You can basically add -s to the verb root, or in some cases (using von Wahl rules) transform the stem by replacing the last consonant (-d-, -t-, -lg-) into -s-.

3rd conjugation A: the general 1sg ending -Ø: jo curr - I am running. B: Verbs which have a past participle ending in -s may use it as a present tense perfective form (for 1sg and 3pl).

E.g. currè - to run - jo currs(u) /ei currs(ut) - I run/they run (entirely) ...   Jo curr(u) /Ei curru(t)- I am running/they are running.

The derivatives of the irregular verb to give (daua) have the form in -s only for 3 pl: perdè - jo perd(u) (I lose), ei perdu(t)/ ei pers - they lose.

The formal 3pl ending (optional) -on must be added on an -s- type (past participle) stem of most verbs, and the -s- is duplicated (except if the previous consonant is double):

e.g. jo perd, ei persson - I lose/they lose, jo vend, ei vensson - I sell/they sell.

The ending -on can be added directly to the stem ending in -r(r)-, -m-, -n-, -ll-, -s(s)- (but not -l-; turns to -ls-): e.g. jo curr(u), ei curron (currson) - to run, ei continon (they withhold).

4th conjugation: the general ending is -Ø. -c /k/ can be added to roots ending in -r-, -n-, -l-, preceded by a vowel. The ending -esc can be added to monosyllabic (mostly nominal) roots in 1sg. Certain verbs with roots ending in -t-, -d-, preceded by -r-, -l-, -n- can have an -s ending in 1sg.

E.g. vení - jo venc (to come), uní - jo unesc (to unite), partí - jo part/pars (I leave), sentí - jo sent/sens - I feel.

The ending -esc /'e̯sk/, /'ɛ̯sk/ is a phonological helping tool for the present tense, only in 1sg. E.g. analizà - jo analizesc (I), ardè - to burn - jo ars, jo ardesc (II).

Certain verbs have already incorporated -sc in the form: creixè, III /kre(j)'ʃe:/ - jo creix, creisc, cresc (ei → e) - ti creixes (to grow), naua, III (stem na-) → nasc or naix (from Lat. [g]nascor).

The ending -isc /'i̯sk/ is more rarely used (only in 1sg), as it has stronger semantic sense of perfectiveness or future aspect. It is routinely used in the verb finí - to finish, jo finisc (I finish).

*** Note: The present indicative is an unmarked tense, so the endings in forms with root stress are not obligatory (except -a, neither in pronunciation nor in writing).

The 2nd person sg. final -s is considered obligatory in the present indicative, but not in any other, marked tense. Examples: ti cantes/cants, ti perdes / perds /'pɛ̯r(d)s/ you sing, you lose. The 1pl/2pl endings are obligatory in the present indicative, so for example:

- I: jo pens(u), ti penses, il pensa(t), ni pensaime(s), vi pensaite(s), ei pens(au[t])

- IV: jo part/pars, ti partis/parts, il part(it), ni partiaime(s), vi partiaite(s), ei part(iu[t])

Vocalic stems and syllable loss:

Verbs in which you get a root ending in a vowel from the infinitive form in -ua, -ea, are usually ones with a syllable loss compared to the Latin etymon.

E.g. from Latin facĕre, vivĕre, sapĕre, credĕre, vedēre.

Faua, III - to do, stem fa-: jo fac, ti fas, il fa(t), ni faime, vi faite, ei fau (fajju). Viua, III - to live, stem vi-: jo vif, ti vius/vifs, il vie(t)/vit, ni viiaime, vi viiaite, ei viiu(t). Savè, III - to know, stem sa(*): jo sau/sap, ti sà(p)s, il sa(pt), ni savaime, vi savaite, ei sajju(t)/sau(t). Creua, III - to believe, stem cre(jj)-: jo creu, ti crés (creus), il cré(gt), ni crejjaime, vi crejjaite, ei crejju(t)/creu(t)).    Veua, II - to see, stem ve(jj)-: jo veu, ti vés (veus), il vé(gt), ni vejjaime, vi vejjaite, ei vejjeu*/veu(t) (*irregular stress)

The irregular verb to be has three conjugations in the present tense - strong (essence form, marked), regular or copular and auxilliary.

The strong form has the stem/root és(s), always stressed and without thematic vowels.

The irregular forms esmi, esti (1/2 sg) were influenced by personal pronouns (dative mi, ti) and also by the plural form este(s) (2pl, from Lat. estis).

* In front of a vowel. The copular form săm (I am) requires a subject or a subject pronoun, it can be pro-clitic or enclitic.

The negative forms are built by adding the prefix ni- to strong forms or adding the particle nu in front of other forms. E.g. jo niesmi /'nj̯e̯s.mi/ - nu săm - I am not.

The irregular verb to have has two conjugations in the present tense - full (or strong form), and auxilliary.

The theme vowel /ɛ/ appears only when it is stress, otherwise a syllable is dropped. So there are two types of stems in the conjugation: root stressed stem a-, and theme stressed avai- /a.'ʋɛ/. * In front of a vowel. The strong monosyllabic forms are stressed. ** Irregular stress in aveu(t) /a.'ʋew/ - they have.

The negative forms are built by adding the particle nu in front of a conjugated form, which should always start with a glide /j/: nu jam /nu.'jam/ - I don't have.

The past participles

The past participles can be used to form compound verbal tenses:

- with auxilliary to have (aure) - compound past (active),

- with auxilliary to be (esse) - passive present.

The PP's in a verbal active form are invariable (with ending -Ø), e.g. am cantàt - I have sung/I sang.

Many PP's can be used as adjectives. As adjectives or as a part of a passive verbal form, they change for gender, number and case (like adjectives with two themes).

The invariable form PP then serves as a M sg. basic form of the adjective -

- (jest) încantat (-Ø) / încantada - he/she is thrilled (M/F).

- (e)scrit / (e)scrista (escriida) /əskri'i:ða/ - written (M/F)

- pers / persa - lost (M/F)

Morphology

Regular past participles are formed from the verbal root, a stressed thematic vowel (only a/i) and final -t:

root + àt: group I: cantàt - PP sung, pensàt - PP thought, demonstràt - PP shown

root + ít: many verbs from groups II - III and all group IV verbs: monít - PP warned (II), finít - finished (IV), dormít - slept (IV).

Variable, adjectival and predicate forms have possible endings added to the base form (...-t-Ø) to show gender, number and case. Consonant and vowel sound changes may occur, e.g.

cantat(e)/cantatu (cantau, cantou), cantada, cantaus (cantous), cantates

finit(u)/finíu, finite (finíe), fini(s)os (finius), finites

Irregular past participles can be formed in four ways:

1) verb root + -s (e.g.) currè (III) to run - PP currs (having run), manè (II) - to stay, PP mans - stayed

2) verb root with the final consonant replaced by -s (following de Wahl rules): e.g. perdè - to lose - PP pers (lost)

3) verb root + -t e.g. diua - to say - PP dit - said, recíua - to receive - PP rece(p)t - received, murí - to die - PP môrt /mwort/ (dead), scriè - to write - PP scrit - written, capè - to catch - PP capt (caught), faua - PP fat (done), naua - PP nat (born)

4) verb root + -ut: a regularization alternative for all irregular participles: e.g. aure (stem av-) - to have - PP avut (had), savè - to know - saút - known, diua - diut, currè - currut etc.

Some participles can be formed in more than one way, as already shown.

Every verb can have a (main or alternative) -t-type participle, for s-participles, just add a -t or -ut (if the form has a consonant cluster). E.g. currsut, mansut.

Some verbs build an s-type past participle with an addition of final -t (...-s-t), e.g.

querrè - PP quest - to inquire, to require; veua - PP vist, veut - to see

Consonant and vowel sound changes may occur in the adjectival forms of the PP's in -ut, e.g.

currsut(e), currsutu/currsú, currsuda, currsúos/currsús, currsudes/currsú(e)s

diut(e), diutu/dióu/diú, diuda, diúos (diús, dióus), diudes

dit(e), dita, ditos, dites

The PP of the irregular verb to be (esse) uses a different stem (fu-): esse - PP fus(t) - to be/been

The imperfect indicative

The imperfect indicative tense is used to express actions or states that have lasted for some time in the past (including habits), but are no longer necessarily occuring. In English it corresponds to the construction used to + verb or to the past continuous.

The imperfect indicative is formed from the present stem (root + theme vowel) and typical endings: (j)am, (j)ăs* (> îs), (j)a(t), (j)áme, (j)áte, (j)au.

E.g. cant a jam /kan'ta̯.jam/- I used to sing, cantaîs - you used to sing

By the influence of the original thematic vowel -a- (of the 1st group) an a-harmonic pattern in singular imperfect indicative has spread to all conjugations: e.g. IV - dormiajam /dorm'ja.jam/ - I used to sleep, dormiéis/dormíis - you used to sleep.

In singular imperfect conjugation, the theme vowel -a- influenced all verb groups and created -a- harmony on the stressed theme vowel:

I: cant-a- > canta-, II: mon-e > -eà- III: curr-Ø > -ua-, IV: dorm-i- > -ià- (1 and 3sg)

In 2sg, e-harmony is present in II/IV, and optionally III: currúis - curreis

In the plural, the unstressed theme vowel was reduced: a > a /a/; e, i > i /j/.

In popular usage, the forms are shortened: I: cantám, cantás/cantaîs, cantá(it), cantáme, cantáte, cantáu.

In other groups: 1/3 sg: moneá(m), curruá(m), dormiá(m), 3pl: moníu, curríu, dormíu.

Irregular verbs in the imperfect tense

The verb to be is the only fully irregular verb in the imperfect. It uses a rhotic, present stem er- (from ess-), and typical endings without iotacization,

jo eram (erjam), ti erăs/erjes/jers, il era(t), ni eráme, vi eráte, ei erau /eron - I used to be, etc.

The verb to have (aure) has a regular 2nd group conjugation with the stem av(e)- in sg. and av(i)- in pl. (from au-):

jo aveajam, ti avejes, il aveaja(t), ni aviáme, vi aviáte, ei aveáu /aviáu - I used to have, etc.