Iraniya

Iraniya (Persian: اِیرَنِیَ (romanized: iraneya)), also known as Iraniyan, is a zonal auxlang designed to be the lingua franca of all people who speak Iranian languages e.g. Persian, Tajik, Pashto etc.

Influenced by many Iranian languages such as Persian and Tajik, it is slightly simplified and incorporates Iranian vocabulary from disparate origins and calques.

Consonants
These are the consonants that are used for transcribing the sounds of Iraniya (using IPA notation).

Vowels
Vowels may vary between dialect. This vowel chart below shows those of the northern 'standard' variety.

Overview
Syllables are mainly structured as (C)(S)V(S)(C(C)).

Pattern
A typical Iraniya syllable is composed of an optional onset, consisting of only one consonant, a mandatory vowel nucleus preceded and succeeded by an optional semivowel, and an optional coda, containing 1 or 2 consonants. The following constraints apply:


 * Onset
 * Consonant (C): Can be any consonant (Onset is only composed of 1 consonant, clusters are only found in loanwords; typically from English or Sanskrit; sometimes an epenthetic /æ/ is inserted between 2 consonants.).
 * Nucleus
 * Semivowel (S)
 * Vowel (V)
 * Semivowel (S)
 * Coda
 * Consonant (C): Can be any consonant.
 * Consonant (C): Can be any consonant (mostly /d, k, s, z, t, ʃ/).

Geminate consonants are also phonemic as well. They are characterized by such sandhi and in some words, such as bacce.

Allophones

 * /b/ becomes [β] intervocalically.
 * Some speakers may nasalize vowels before /n/.

Elision

 * /n/ is omitted after /h/.
 * /h/ is omitted before fricatives.

Sandhi
Phonological changes occur at morpheme boundaries (sandhi) for specific grammatical morphemes.


 * /pb/, /td/, and /kɡ/ become geminated [pː], [t̪ː] and [kː] respectively.
 * The cluster /dl/ becomes a geminated [lː].

Stress
Stress usually falls from the first to the second syllables. Stress tends to:


 * be always on the first syllable
 * avoid /ɨ/'s
 * avoid being on the negative affix nǝ-.


 * obtain their original stress on loanwords e.g. Obama /oˈbɑːmɑː/.

Pitch
Iraniya has a 'pitch' accent (called a sahad). The sahad of Iraniya can be described as a rising tone e.g. /ǽ/. Sahad tends to be:


 * on the last-stem syllable of most words
 * on the first syllable on interjections, conjunctions and vocatives
 * never on:
 * personal suffixes of verbs
 * clitics
 * one-syllable words
 * loanwords
 * always on:
 * negative suffix nə-
 * non negative verb suffixes, or prefix noun on compound verbs.

Intonation
Iraniya, like English, also has intonation. The four types of intonation can be described as:


 * normal sentence (no intonation)
 * interrogative sentence (/↗︎/ on first word, fourth word)
 * imperative sentence (/↗︎/ on first word, third word, /↘︎/ on second word)
 * information sentence (/↘︎/ on second word, /↗︎/ on fourth word)

Orthography
Iraniya has no standardized writing system, though the Arabic alphabet is the most used, but still not verified by the government. Linguists usually use the Aytuği romanization, while Tajiks usually prefer the Cyrillic alphabet for transliterating Iraniya words into Tajik.

Aytuği romanization
The Aytuği romanization is a version of the Latin alphabet based on the 1990s versions of the Latin Udi alphabet and the Uniform Turkic Alphabet.

Arabic alphabet
The Arabic alphabet is mostly used by Arabs, the Libyans and the Algerians. Some linguists may use that.

Cyrillic alphabet
The Cyrillic alphabet is mostly used in Russia, southern Mongolia and northern Bulgaria.

Gender
Iraniya has 3 genders; masculine, feminine and neuter. Neuter is unmarked. If a noun is preceded by the suffix -o, it is masculine. If a noun is preceded by the suffix -i, it is feminine.

Cases
There are 2 cases in Iraniya: nominative and accusative. The nominative is unmarked, but when it's followed by the particle ra or suffix -a, it is accusative. The oblique cases are marked by postpositions.


 * Nominative: şuh morda xord 'the dog ate the man'
 * Accusative: mord şuha zud ' the man pats the dog'

An additional case, possessive is formed with ezāfe.


 * Possessive using ezāfe: kiteb-e Sam 'Sam's book'

Number
All nouns can be made plural with the suffix -he. Such examples of this are:


 * kiteb (book)
 * kitebhe (books)

Sometimes, the suffix -iz is used, mainly in words that end in the phoneme /h/ or /x/.


 * pagoh (base, foundation)
 * pagohiz (bases, foundations)

Subject pronouns
Pronouns share 3 persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd), and 2 numbers (plural, singular). This table below shows the list of pronouns, with their correspondences. Iraniya is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns are often dropped off.


 * (Ma) xub am. - I am good.

Object pronouns
The most common object pronouns of Iraniya are:

Possessives
Possessives are shown by adding the ezafe construct to the pronoun.

Determiners
These tables below show the use of determiners by the word 'sib' (apple).

Demonstratives
The most common demonstrative pronouns in Iraniya are:

Verbs
Verbs in Iraniya are very complex by their morphology. The stem order of a verb is:

Infinitives
Iraniya infinitives end in -dan or -tan. Some examples:


 * xordan (to eat)
 * nocūdan (to drink)
 * raftan (to go)
 * bazadan (to play)

There are two types of stems, the present stem, and the past stem. The past stem is easier to learn, it is formed by simply removing the -an suffix.

Gerund
The gerund is formed with the infinitive.


 * xordan (eating (noun))
 * Xordan bijaşaƣma (I love eating.)

Participles
Participles in Iraniya usually distinguish between two types: present and perfect.


 * The perfect participle is marked with the suffix -ti. It is active in transitive verbs but passive in intransitive verbs.
 * xorti (eaten)
 * nocūti (drank)
 * The present participle is marked with the suffix -dar.
 * xordar (is eating)
 * nocūdar (is drinking).

Personal endings
Personal forms of verbs are usually formed with simple prefixes. The personal suffixes for the non-past are:


 * -am first person singular 'I'
 * -i second person singular 'you'
 * -et third person singular 'he/she/it'
 * -em first person plural 'we'
 * -ed second person plural 'thou'
 * -tu third person plural 'they'

The 2nd and 3rd persons plural may refer to singular persons for added respect or honorific. One major exception is God, for whom plural forms are never used.

The past tenses have very similar endings, except that the 3rd person singular is unmarked:


 * -am first person singular 'I'
 * -i second person singular 'you'
 * - third person singular 'he/she/it'
 * -em first person plural 'we'
 * -ed second person plural 'thou'
 * -tu third person plural 'they'

Tense-Aspect-Mood
Iraniya verbs can be conjugated into 2 simple tenses (present, past), 3 grammatical moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative) and 2 aspects (perfective, imperfective).

Present
The present tense talks about the present time. It is formed by the present stem, the prefix bi-, then the personal ending.


 * bixor (eat)
 * ma bixoram (I eat)

Past
The past tense talks about the past time. It is formed by the past stem.


 * xord (he/she/it ate)

Imperfect
The imperfect talks about ongoing events that were completed in the past time. It is formed by the past stem, and adding the prefix mi-.


 * mixordma (I was eating)

Present perfect
The present perfect is used to express a past event that has present consequences. It is formed by removing the infinitive suffix, adding the present, and adding the perfect participle. The personal marker is finally added.


 * Ma bixoramti (I had eaten)

Pluperfect
The pluperfect, or past perfect, is used to refer to an action at a time earlier than a time in the past already referred to. It is formed by the perfect participle, and the personal marker.


 * xortti (had ate)

Future
The future is formed with the aux. verb xostan ('to want') in the present, and the past stem with personal endings.


 * ma xosam xord - I will eat
 * tu xosi xord - You will eat
 * ū xoset xord - He/she/it will eat
 * mo xosem xord - We will eat
 * şum xosed xord - Thou will eateth
 * onho xostu xord - They will eat

Present
The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem with personal endings.


 * Ma xorma - I may eat
 * Mo xorem - we may eat

Present
The imperative mood is a mood that urges someone to do something. It is formed with the prefix bo.


 * boxor! (Eat!)

Copula
The verb bodan 'to be', can be put into a copula using Iraniya's verb conjugation. This table shows the Iraniya copula.

Causatives
Causatives are valency-increasing operations that causes a predicate to do or be something e.g. I made him cry. The causative in Iraniya is formed with the suffix -ən to the normal or past stem.


 * -xor- (eating), -xor-ən (making to eat), xoramən (made me eat)

Passive voice
The passive voice is a valence-decreasing voice where the object is done by the subject. It is done by placing the conjugation of the verb şudan 'to have' before the verb, and adding the personal ending.


 * şu xor (is eaten)

Adjectives
Adjectives typically follow the nouns they modify, using the ezafe construct. However, adjectives can precede nouns by derivational morphology e.g. xob-başt (lit. good luck) (lucky). Adjectives can come in many different orders after a noun and in this case an adjective at the end of a word, is use to generate more emphasis or suspense.

The comparative is marked with the suffix -tьr, and the superlative with the suffix -nitьr. The word 'than' is formed with the preposition əz.


 * Maje gorvi bəzorgtьr ost əz tuje şuh. (My cat is bigger than your dog.)

Word order
Iraniya has a canonical word order of SOV. Modifiers usually follow the noun they modify. If a direct object is included, then Iraniya has a word order of SODV (subject-object-direct object-verb).

Adjectival syntax and clauses
The adjective, using the ezafe construction, usually comes after the noun, and in some cases, it can often go before it to increase emphasis.


 * zan-e noz (the cute girl)

Subordinate clauses usually come after co-ordinate clauses.

Negation
Negation is formed by the prefix nǝ-.


 * nəxordan (not to eat)
 * nəxorc (did not ate)
 * nəmixord (was not eating)

Forming questions
The particle ǝj can make a yes-no question, and it comes after the verb. Other questions can be made by the word order of QOV (question word-object-verb).


 * Ce tuje nam ost? - What's your name?

Interrogative pronominals
The interrogatives of Iraniya are:

Relative pronouns
There are two relative pronouns in Iraniya, on and cei. On is used for direct clauses (i.e. those where the relativised element is the subject of its clause or the direct object of an inflected verb rather than the copula bodan), while cei is used for indirect clauses.


 * mord on ma didam - the man that I saw

Reduplication
Reduplication of some verbs (mainly onomatopoeiatic verbs) in Iraniya causes iterative or repeated actions.


 * guludan (to gurgle)
 * gulguludan (to gurgle repeatedly)

Derivational morphology

 * bi- derives from noun X a phrase meaning 'without X'.
 * -an derives from noun/phrase X a noun meaning 'place of X'
 * na- derives from adjective X an adjective meaning 'the opposite of X'
 * -fe derives from adjective X a noun meaning 'act of being X'
 * bə- derives from adjective X an adverb meaning 'X-ly'.

Lexicon

 * a, an (indef. article) - jak (lit. one)
 * abacus - cartaƣ
 * ability - ƣodr
 * above, over - ferez, alel
 * absolute - kəmalfe (lit. completeness)
 * after - gəz
 * again - baz
 * against - moxlef
 * air - şijo (m.)
 * (to) align - ǝxattan
 * all - təmam
 * alone, lone, only - təha
 * also - hem
 * altar - çamaca (f.)
 * America - Amerika
 * ancient, antique - qadam
 * anger, wrath - ƣǝzve
 * angry, wrathful - ƣǝzvena
 * answer - sadij
 * (to) answer - sadij dedan (lit. answer to)
 * antique - antik
 * (to) appear, seem - xǝsmadan
 * apple - sib
 * arch - taq
 * to argue, dispute - baz kartan
 * around - perav
 * astronaut - astronot
 * author - navs
 * authority - qattal
 * away - dour
 * back (to a previous state) - paşt
 * balance - tədal
 * banana - kil
 * band - band
 * base, foundation - pagoh
 * to base, found - xəvardan
 * based - asas
 * bare - baraxnə
 * to be - bodan (for forms, see Copula )
 * beak - manqar
 * bear - xors
 * to beat - zandan
 * to become - şodan
 * to believe - bavar kartan
 * big - bәzorg
 * bird - pәrәnd
 * to blow - vәzidan
 * to boast, brag - laf zadan
 * boat - keşti (f.)
 * body, torso - betin
 * bone - ustuxon
 * book - kiteb
 * border, limit - marz
 * bottom - tax
 * bow (n.) - kəmən
 * to bow - xamidan
 * bread - nan
 * to break - şikastan
 * breath - nafs
 * to breathe - nafs keşdan
 * bridge - pul
 * to bring - avardan
 * brother - bəradr
 * by - ba
 * bye, goodbye, farewell - xoda hafz
 * camel - şotr
 * to carve, sculpt - tarşidan
 * cat - gorvi
 * cave - kaf
 * certain - hatim
 * change - taƣir
 * to change - taƣir kartan
 * chaos - aşab
 * to check - bazdaştan
 * cheese - penir
 * child - bacce
 * clay - rus
 * cloud - badl
 * daughter - doxter
 * day - roz
 * dress - ƣamiz
 * to drink - noşidan
 * dog - şuh
 * egg - taxm
 * elephant - fil
 * father - pədr
 * figure, being - şokol
 * fire - otoş
 * fish - mahij
 * girl - zan
 * goat - bez
 * good - xub
 * great - ali
 * horse - asb
 * house - xon
 * leaf - borg
 * monkey - bandar
 * mother - mədr
 * north - şam
 * one - jak
 * paper - kaƣaz
 * purple - camin
 * red - lal
 * sausage - sosiz
 * (oto) shine - deraxşidan
 * should - ta
 * sing - sarudan
 * store - dukon
 * sun - xarş
 * table - miz
 * three - tin
 * train - ƣətar
 * two - doi
 * water - əv
 * will - hoxət
 * wind - bad