Denari

The Denari language (Ferse-va Denari / فهرسه'ڤا دهناری) is a language of the hormagi-legana family, spoken by denari, an alien people of the planet Ēvèsh (world, in Denari). It is a nominative-accusative language, of SVO structure, with highly declined nouns (it has nine grammatical cases), and highly inflected verbs.

Its main speakers are the Denari, it is spoken mainly in Denar, officially Denari Republic (Kermèshvâna-va Denari / کهرمهٔشڤآنا'ڤا دهناری). The denari are monotheists, their religion is nishraism, and they accredit in a single goddess called Nishra (literally god in denari). Their religion encourages capitalism and the pursuit of profit, whose purpose is in the commerce practiced by the Denaris.

Denari is used as lingua franca in much of the planet Ēvèsh, having influenced many languages.

Consonants
The denari is comparatively little complex as to the number and types of consonants. Each consonant has its own individual letter, except for the consonants [r] and [ɾ], which are represented by the same letter R (ر in Arabic), and the phonemes [l] and [ɫ], which are represented by the same letter L (ل in Arabic).
 * The Denari only has a consonant with an emphatic version, the [sˤ], which is only used between two vowels, and is represented in the Arabic alphabet by the letter ص, indicating an emphatic son near to the [z] phoneme. A similar or similar phenomenon occurs in the Portuguese language, in which the letter S acquires the sound of [z] between vowels.
 * The phonemes [r] and [ɾ] are represented by the same letter R (ر in Arabic). Their uses vary from word to word, syllable to syllable and dialect to dialect, but usually the phoneme [ɾ] is often used more.
 * The phonemes [l] and [ɫ] are represented by the same letter L (ل in Arabic). The letter L represents the phoneme [l] when it precedes a vowel on the same syllable, and represents the phoneme [ɫ] when occur after a vowel on the same syllable. But in some dialects the L acquires the sound of [l] same at the end of the syllable after and vowel.
 * In denari, nasal sounds ([n] and [m]) are only preceded, on the same syllable, by closed vowels ([i] and [u]) or by open back vowels ([ɒ], [e], [o]).

Vowels
The Denari has eight vowels, being two closed vowels ([i] and [u]), and six open vowels, divided in three open front vowels ([a], [ɛ] and [ɔ]) and three open back vowels ([ɒ], [e], [o]). Each vowel has its own letter, differentiating the open front vowels from the open back vowels. This prevents words, which would be orthographically the same (varying only in the opening of the vowel), to be confused in the pronunciation. Example: In Denari, the closed vowels [i] and [u] and the semi-vowels [j] and [w] are respectively represented by the same letters, I / ی in the case of the phonemes [i] and [j], and U / ؤ  in the case of the phonemes [u] and [w]. This is because in Denari, sounds [j] and [w] are little used, used only in diphthongs, and, most of the time, optionally. The use of the sounds [j] and [w] in diphthongs is only compulsory when it is a rising diphthong (semi-vowel + vowel) antecedent of vowel or when the decreasing diphthong (vowel + semi-vowel). Examples:
 * Vos / ڤوس - /vos/ - Number two in English.
 * Vòs / ڤۏس - /vɔs/ - Uncle in English.
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.
 * The word naia / نایا, woman in denari, is pronounced [ˈna.ja]. In this case, the [i] would only be pronounced in the place of [j] if there was a tonic accent on the I, as occurs in the word aíad / ایَاد, stone in denari.
 * The word aonai / اونای (declension in the accusative case of the word aoní / اونیَ, meaning person or man), is pronounced [aoˈnaj], that is because there is a decreasing diphthong. The [i] would be pronounced in place of [j] if there was a tonic accent, which would indicate that there is no diphthong.

Long Vowels
All denari vowels have their long versions, which are represented by the following forms: When the vowel is long, and precedes another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong will not be form, and it will be a hiatus. When the vowel is long but succeed another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong may form depending on the accent and diphthong formation rules.
 * In the Latin alphabet, by the addition of a macrón (ˉ) above the letter.
 * In the Arabic alphabet, by the addition of a diacritic (ـِ) below the letter.

Diphthongs
In denari, there are two categories of diphthongs: rising (semi-vowel + vowel) and falling diphthongs (vowel + semi-vowel or vowel + vowel).

Rising Diphthongs:
There are no rising diphthongs beginning in semi-vowel and ending in closed vowel (/ji/, /ju/, /wu/, /wi/) in Denari.

Falling Diphthongs:
Denari doesn't have falling diphthongs terminated in A, Â, È and Ò.

Hiatus
A hiatus occurs when two adjacent vowels are in different syllables, having non-continuous sound. A hiatus can be formed with all vowels, and will be orthographically identified by various rules of acentuantion and location of the vowel.
 * When the vowel is a long vowel, it will always form a hiatus with the next vowel. Example: Ahrāe / احراِه - [ahˈraːe].
 * When the two consecutive vowels (except when the second vowel is [i] or [u], because they have its own rules) are succeded by the stresseded syllable of the word, they will always form a hiatus, so there will be no graphical accentuation. Example: In the word Aoní / اونیَ - [a.oˈni], the letter O isn't accentuated, because a gap will always form when two vowels are succeeded by the stressed syllable [ˈni].
 * When the second vowel of two consecutive vowels is [i] or [u], the letters I and U will always be accentuated to identify the sounds of [i] and [u], not the sounds of [j] and [w] in their respective letters, and to indicate that the syllable in which these vowels are always the stressed syllable of the word. Exemple: In the words Zhaís (ژایَس) / Zhaír (ژایَر) - [ʒaˈis] / [ʒaˈiɾ], meaning the adjective bad, in the masculine and feminine forms, the letter I is accentuated, to indicate the hiatus, the sound of [i] and not [j], and the stresseds sylables of the words [ˈis] and [ˈiɾ], because when there is a hiatus and the second vowel is [i] or [u], they will always be in the stressed syllable.
 * There will always be hiatus when there is vowel succeded by A, Â, È and O, and not accentuated, except when one of the vowels is stressed and is accentuated according to the accentuation rules. Ex: Maèk / ماهٔک - [maˈɛk], meaning drink.
 * When there are three consecutive vowels letters in a word, there may be two situations: In the first situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel ([j] and [w]) and the third is another vowel. In this case, the first and second letters form a hiatus, and the second and third letters form a growing diphthong. Ex: Naia / نایا - [ˈna.ja], meaning woman. In the second situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel and the third is a vowel, and the first two letters form a diphthong, with the last two forming a hiatus. In this case, the last vowel will always be accentuated to indicate the hiatus and the fact that it will also be in the stressed syllable of the word. Ex: Paiór / پایۏَر - [pajˈɔɾ], meaning plant.

Optional Hiatus
Words that begin or with two consecutive vowels lerters may have optional gaps, in which, if there is no accent that indicates the tone, and hence the occurrence of the hiatus, the two letters can be pronounced both as hiatus and diphthong.

Exemples:
 * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as [jad] and as [iˈad]. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule.

Alphabet
Denari has its own alphabet, but in this text the words will be written in the Latin alphabet and in a modified Perso-Arabic alphabet (because they are the ones that best represent the Denari phonemes).
 * The "Ss", (س in Arabic alphabet), is used between two vowels, to represent the phoneme [s].
 * The ص is written as S in the Latin alphabet, but has a sound of [sˤ] or [z] when between two vowels. It is not used elsewhere, only between two vowels or after a vowel on the same syllable, succeeded by a consonant on a different syllable, to represent the sound of [sˤ] or [z].

Pronouns
Pronouns in the Denari language are simple when compared to other languages. The denari has one pronoun for each person of the discourse, in the singular and in the plural.

In the first person, we have, in the nominative case, from which the pronouns in the other cases are derived, the pronouns ast / است (first person singular) and ahrā / احراِ (first person plural).

In the second person, we have, in the nominative case, the pronouns nor / نور (second person singular) and avut / اڤؤت (second person plural). Denari does not have the T - V distinction, and the use of pronouns does not depend on the relationship between the speakers or speech formality, but rather whether the speaker is speaking with one or more interlocutors. Both are used in both formal and informal speech, and avut is as used as nor, depending on the number of the interlocutor.

In the third person, pronouns differ in numbers as well as in gender. The denari has, in the third person singular the pronouns sas / ساس (he) and sar / سار (she) in the nominative case. The denari has no neutral gender, so there is no neutral pronoun. It also has no third-person pronoun for inanimate or non-human objects. As in the Romance languages, the masculine and feminine pronouns of the third person plural are the plural of the third-person pronouns of the singular, in the case sasân / ساصآن (they masculine) and sarân / سارآن (they feminine) in the nominative case.

Denari, except in the nominative case, has a reflexive pronoun for the third person, being vet / ڤهت in the accusative case.

The Denari has nominative pronouns (indicating subject), accusative (indicating object), dative (indicating the sufferer of an action), comitative (indicating company), possessive (indicating possessiveness), causative pronoun the agent of an action in the passive voice), demonstrative, indefinite, relative and interrogative pronouns.

Nominative Pronouns
Nominative pronouns indicate the pronoun as subject of the sentence. Denari is a pronoun-droping language, that is, the nominative pronoun can be concealed because the verb conjugates according to the subject and indicate the subject. Since the Denari is an SVO language, the nominative pronoun always appears in front of the verb at the beginning of the sentence.

Exemples:

 * Ast vâ as kōbèki-va māsas / است ڤآ اس کوِبهٔکی'ڤا ماِصاصس (I have a great house)
 * Ahrā lân lândasiân / احراِ لآن لآنداصیآن (We are brothers)
 * Nor alanat alèli / نور الانات الهٔلی (You read the book)
 * Avut maèdânt iadi / اڤؤت ماهٔدآنت یادی (You drank all)
 * Sas i astas cepasi / ساس ی ​استاس ثهپاصی (He is my husband)
 * Sar i as naiai-va shīr / سار ی اس نایای'ڤا شیِر (She is a tall woman)
 * Sasân in vòvisiân / ساصآن ین ڤۏڤیصیآن (They are cousins)
 * Sarân serin kōbèkda kaona / سارآن سهرین کوِبهٔکدا کاونا (They will go to father's house)

Acusative Pronouns
The accusative pronouns indicate the direct object of the sentence.

Exemples ( underlined null subject in English ):

 * Acidin esm dāgari / اثیدین هسم داِگاری ( They told me that)
 * Sar maraní ahrē / سار مارانیَ احرهِ (She loves us)
 * Sas ceradí ne / ساس ثهرادیَ نه(He stole you)
 * Lávân laedí avet / لاَڤآن لاهدیَ اڤهت (The money conquered you)
 * Vavt zamaní vet l'tâna / ڤاڤت زامانیَ ڤهت لعتآنا (The fire feeds himself of air)
 * Noras nervas lèrí ses / نوراس نهرڤاس لهٔریَ سهس (Your son will see him)
 * Vergad ser / ڤهرگاد سهر ( I listened her)
 * Nânvar līvarí sesân / نآنڤار لیِڤاریَ سهصآن (The sister will help them)
 * Astarân peshvarân lèrin serân / استارآن پهشڤارآن لهٔرین سهرآن (My daughters will see them)

Exemples:

 * Sas visadar alèli asd / ساس ڤیصادار الهٔلی اسد (He give the book to me / He give me the book)
 * Ahrār nânvar acirat kot ahrād / احراِر نآنڤار اثیرات کوت احراِد (Our sister will tell something to us)
 * Mēso vei làndas kadin kōbèki nad / مهِصو ڤهی لآَنداس کالآنا کوِبهٔکی ناد (The man and the brother maked the house to you)
 * Pradadí alaio avād / پرادادیَ الایو اڤاِد ( He kept reading to you)
 * Sar pradadí alaio vēd / سار پرادادیَ الایو ڤهِد (She kept reading to herself)
 * Visar as ehrâni sasd / ڤیصار اس هحرآنی ساسد (I will give the present to him)
 * Dânvarân sedin sard / دآنڤارآن سهدین سارد (The friends went to her)
 * Sarân visanin mardi sasând / سارآن ڤیصانین ماردی ساصآند (They give love to them)
 * Sasân visanin mardi sarând / ساصآن ڤیصانین ماردی سارآند (They give love to them)

Exemples:

 * Sas dē kōbèkven kast / ساس دهِ کوِبهٔکڤهن کاست (He is with me in the house)
 * Maète kahrā / ماهٔته کاحراِ (Drink with us)
 * Drarân kâner / درارآن کآنهر ( We will die with you)
 * Sar dadí modaven kāvut / سار دادیَ موداڤهن کاِڤؤت (She was in the city with you)
 * Sas xosadid kāvet / ساس خوصادید کاِڤهت (He had spoken with himself)
 * Ast lèd sharpai-va shal vei taosâni l'dalna lāsâna kas vei kar / است لهٔد شارپای'ڤا شال ڤهی تاوصآنی لعدالنا لاِصآنا کاس ڤهی کار (I saw the empty river and the stars of the night's sky with him and with her)
 * Ârir kasân / آریر کاصآن ( I will stay with them)
 * Alav karân / الاڤ کارآن ( I was reading with them)