KiBantu

KiBantu is a zonal language that is meant to act as a potential lingua franca for the Bantu-speaking peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa. Though it is highly influenced by Swahili, it is slightly simplified and incorporates Bantu vocabulary of disparate origins.

Phonology
KiBantu's phonology is principally derived from that of Proto-Bantu, although sound correspondences aren't always regular. Like most Bantu languages kiBantu is tonal, though the tones intentionally do not distinguish many minimal pairs.

Vowels
KiBantu, like Swahili, Shona, and Zulu, has a simple five vowel system, as opposed to the seven vowel system of some modern Bantu languages and Proto-Bantu. In addition, there is no contrastive vowel length. The mid vowels /e/ and /o/ may be realized as close-mid and open-mid, and may be pronounced according to each speaker's preference. There are no diphthongs in KiBantu. All vowel sequences are permitted, and each vowel constitutes a separate syllable. Sequences of two of the same vowels, such as /aa/ or /ee/ are rarely found in word roots, but can often be found in inflected words.

Consonants
KiBantu has twenty basic consonant sounds, and an additional thirteen consonants if prenasalized consonants are counted separately.
 * Prenasalised consonants are consonants that are preceded by a brief homorganic nasal. In most cases the homorganic nasal takes on the same place of articulation as the consonant it precedes, though in orthography this is only reflected in the labial consonants, and all other instances of the homorganic nasal are written as ⟨n⟩.
 * When modified by the homorganic nasal, the approximants change in predictable ways. /l/ has no prenasalised counterpart, so it becomes /ⁿd/, as seen in nde, an inflected form of -le "long". /w/ similarly becomes /ᵐb/. As an exception, when /j/ undergoes prenasalisation, instead of becoming a prenasalised consonant it becomes the palatal nasal /ɲ/.
 * The nasals /m/, /n/, and /ɲ/, as well as /h/, do not change at all when prenasalised.
 * The velar nasal [ŋ] does not occur as a separate phoneme, but as a variant of the homorganic nasal before the velar consonants /k/ and /g/.
 * /h/ is rarely found in words of native Bantu origin.
 * /l/ and /r/ do not contrast in native words and most loanwords, as the phoneme /l/ is almost always used. However, /r/ can occur and is written as such in proper names such as kinyarwanda "Rwanda language".

Tone
KiBantu has two tones, high and low. The high tone has a higher pitch and is indicated with an acute accent, while the low tone is lower and unmarked. The low tone is generally treated as a default, and is generally considered an absence of tone. Tones in KiBantu rarely play any kind of role in distinguishing grammatical features; they simply exist to distinguish similar words. Tone does not have to be indicated in more casual writing, as there are not enough minimal pairs to make a text difficult to understand if tone is not written. For example, these roots exemplifly a three-way tonal contrast, though they may have different prefixes: This article will mark tone when applicable.
 * -kala: to sit
 * -kála: charcoal → makála: charcoal
 * -kálá: crab → nkálá: crab

Phonotactics
The syllable structure in KiBantu is (N)(C)(G)V. The nucleus is always a vowel, and cannot be a syllabic /m/ like in many Bantu languages. Though prenasalized consonants are treated as one consonant phonetically, the homorganic nasal that precedes a consonant can be considered a separate part of the onset. Additionally, one of the glides, /j/ or /w/, may follow most consonants in the onset. Maximal syllable structure can be seen in monosyllabic words such as ngwe /ᵑɡwe/ "leopard" and mbwá /ᵐbwá/ "dog". Final consonants and consonant clusters in foreign loanwords are often broken up using an epenthetic vowel, such as English gram becoming galamu in KiBantu.

Orthography
KiBantu is written phonetically with the Latin alphabet. Most letters correspond to one sound, but there are two digraphs discounting prenasalized sounds: ⟨sh⟩, and ⟨ny⟩. The letters ⟨q⟩, ⟨r⟩, and ⟨x⟩ do not occur in most words, however they can occur in proper names. The English approximations listed below are not meant to indicate the exact pronunciations of the letters, but to serve as a guide for English speakers. The one orthographic issue that may cause some ambiguity is whether glides should be written between consecutive vowels of differing heights. In word roots, the glides are generally written. The root for mushroom is written -owa, not *-oa, while the root for pear is peya, not *pea. With grammatical extensions, however, the glide is generally not written. For example, the plural of mwáka "year" is written miáka, not ''miyáka. ''

Word Formation
Approximately 75% of KiBantu's lexicon is of native Bantu origin. Of that percentage, 72% is traceable back to a reconstructable Proto-Bantu root, while 28% comes from words of native Bantu origin that are not reconstructable as Proto-Bantu, or words that were derived from other words of Bantu origin. The remaining 25% of KiBantu's lexicon is of foreign origin. Words of English origin make up the bulk of this, at 58% of loanwords, while Arabic contributes 26%. Words from other languages such as Persian, French, Portuguese, and various Indic languages make up the remainder of loanwords in KiBantu.

Derivation from Proto-Bantu
In many cases, there are regular or semi-regular correspondences between Proto-Bantu phonemes and KiBantu sounds. Tones, as well, usually correspond exactly to the reconstructed Proto-Bantu root.

Languages Drawn From
As Swahili already acts as a lingua franca for East Africa, more of KiBantu's vocabulary was drawn from Swahili than any other Bantu language. However, the vocabulary of KiBantu represents many larger phyla of the Bantu languages: the Nyasa languages are represented by Chichewa, the Great Lakes Bantu languages are represented by Rwanda-Rundi, the Nguni languages are represented by vocabulary from Xhosa and Zulu, while the Bangi–Ntomba languages are represented by Lingala.

The following is a list of what percentage of the Bantu roots in KiBantu share a recognizable cognate in the Bantu languages used to provide its vocabulary:
 * Swahili - 65%
 * Chichewa - 63%
 * Rwanda-Rundi - 46%
 * Shona - 35%
 * Xhosa - 33%
 * Zulu - 33%
 * Luba-Kasai - 32%
 * Lingala - 27%

Technological Vocabulary
A few words for modern technology are derived from Proto-Bantu. These come through a Bantu language (usually Swahili) in which the word has an older meaning derived from Proto-Bantu and a more modern meaning. In KiBantu, only the modern meaning is kept.
 * ndege: airplane (From Swahili ndege, from Proto-Bantu *ndègè "bird")
 * muzinga: cannon (From Swahili mzinga, from Proto-Bantu *mʊ̀dɪ̀ngà "beehive")

Grammar
KiBantu is an agglutinative language, which means that most words are constructed by joining a root together with many smaller affixes. Its primary word order is SVO, and it is also primarily a head-initial language. Verbs follow the adjective, adjectives follow the noun they modify, and the adpositions in KiBantu are prepositions, not postpositions. Unlike English, there are no articles such as "a" and "the". Another feature common to Bantu languages that KiBantu naturally shares is a variety of noun classes.

Noun Classes
Nouns classes form the core of how KiBantu nouns work. Verbs, adjectives, demonstratives, and some prepositions all inflect to agree with a noun's inherent class. Most noun classes occur in pairs: singular and plural. Numerically and grammatically, the plural is a different class than the singular, though semantically they are the same class. Most classes have an underlying semantic category and patterns of meaning are often identifiable in each class. However, there are many exceptions in almost every class, and noun class is generally arbitrary. Each of the classes has a usual prefix, however, the prefix often changes before a vowel. In all, there are thirteen full noun classes, and three additional secondary noun classes. Note that in the chart below, the classes are numbered with the traditional Bantu numbering system. Like in several Bantu languages, classes 12 and 13 are skipped and are not a class in KiBantu, due to the fact that were present in Proto-Bantu and are still in many extant Bantu languages.

This prefix list may seem daunting, but there are many general rules:
 * 1) In most cases, if a class prefix precedes a root starting with the same vowel as the prefix, the prefix becomes the bare consonant. For example, the the root for "child", -ána, which takes class 2 in the plural, becomes bána, not *baána.
 * 2) Classes that end in -u become their bare consonants before -o as well as -u. For example, the class 3 root -osí "smoke" is mosí when taking its prefix.
 * 3) The class prefixes that end in -i all behave a little differently. The prefix mi- remains mi- before any vowel except i, while ki becomes c- and bi- becomes by- before every vowel except -i.
 * 4) Classes 1a, 9a, and 10a do not take any prefix.

Mu-ba class
The mu-ba class, known as classes 1 and 2 respectively, is the only noun class in KiBantu that has a totally clear semantic field. Nouns in the mu-ba class refer exclusively to people. Note that this does not mean that all nouns referring to people are within this class, merely that all nouns in this class represent people. Agent nouns be derived from verbs and adjectives also regularly appear in the mu-ba class. Agent nouns derived from verbs replace the final -a of the verb with -i. There is also a small subset of nouns of class 1 known as class 1a. Except for classes 9a and 10a, it is the only class without an identifying prefix; nouns in class 1a do not have the mu- prefix in the singular that is characteristic of the mu-ba class. However, nouns in class 1a still take class 2 prefixes in the plural. Most of these words fall into two categories: Bantu kin terms, or borrowed occupations:
 * muntu/bantu: person/people
 * mwána/bána: child/children
 * mukázi/bakázi: woman/women
 * mulúme/balúme: man/men
 * kupika: to cook → mupiki/bapiki: chef/chefs
 * kulima: to farm → mulimi/balimi: farmer/farmers
 * kulóba: to fish → mulóbi/balóbi: fisherman/fishermen
 * mama/bamama: mother/mothers
 * tata/batata: father/fathers
 * ndugu/bandugu: kinsman/kinsmen


 * dokótoli/badokótoli: doctor/doctors
 * bishópu/babishópu: bishop/bishops
 * pápa/bapápa: pope/popes

Mu-mi class
The mu-mi class is known as class 3 in the singular and class 4 in the plural. It is one of the most common noun classes, and as such is one of the most semantically varied, though a common thread that can be drawn is that nouns in this class often extend in vertically in one or more directions. Although many potential categorizations will be laid out, there will always be exceptions.

The most stable category is the names of trees. Tree names can be derived systematically by adding the mu- prefix to plants of other classes. There are many body parts in the mu-mi class, and they are categorized as extending lengthwise in one direction, or being particularly active. Tools that extend lengthwise in one direction can also be found in this class. Incorporeal or amorphous things that are considered active also often appear in the mu-mi class. A few flat stretches or expanses can also sometimes be seen in the mu-mi class. Some nouns derived from verbs can also appears in the mu-mi class. These derivations generally replace the final -a of the verb with a final -o. These nouns aren't derived by a regular scheme, and therefore must be memorized. And finally, a few loanwords that begin with m- have found their way into this class, though they also may fit into some of the aforementioned categorizations.
 * mutí/mití: tree/trees
 * icungwa: orange (fruit) → mucungwa/micungwa: orange tree/orange trees
 * ápola: apple → mwápola/miápola: apple tree/apple trees
 * mutíma/mitíma: heart/hearts
 * mutú/mitú: head/heads
 * mukila/mikila: tail/tails
 * mugulu/migulu: leg/legs
 * mufúpa/mifúpa: bone/bones
 * mulango/milango: door/doors
 * mukónto/mikónto: spear/spears
 * mucayilo/micayilo: broom/brooms
 * mupanga/mipanga: hatchet/hatchets
 * mweya: air
 * mosí: smoke
 * móto: fire
 * muvuke: steam
 * mudíma: darkness
 * muzimu/mizimu: spirit/spirits
 * munda/minda: field/fields
 * mukeka/mikeka: mat/mats
 * muji/miji: city/cities
 * kutéga: to set a trap → mutégo/mitégo: trap/traps
 * kuténga: to buy → muténgo/miténgo: price/prices
 * kubánza: to begin → mubánzo/mibánzo: beginning/beginnings.
 * munala/minala: tower/towers (from Arabic manāra)
 * musumali/misumali: nail/nails (from Arabic mismār)
 * munuta/minuta: minute/minutes (from French minut)
 * muziki: music (from English music, French musique)

I-ma class
Known as classes 5 and 6 respectively, the i-ma class, generally encompasses things that are often found in groups, as well as small round things. But, this is complicated by the fact that this is the class with the second largest amount of loanwords, so assigning a clear semantic field is difficult. In other Bantu languages, such as Swahili and Shona, this class often takes no prefix. However, when these words are loaned into KiBantu, they take the i- prefix.

The i-ma class is prototypically associated with fruits. Though there are some fruits in this class, more words for fruits are in class 9a. Other small, rounds objects are also occasionally in this class: Another common semantic commonality, as mentioned before, is body parts that commonly come in groups or pairs: Other things seen in groups or pairs are also included: There are quite a few words that only occur in class 6 and represent liquids: A few other words are also exclusively class 6 and have no singular, though there is little that unites these nouns semantically: And finally, there are many loanwords present in this class. Many of these are older loanwords that came into Swahili, and then into other Bantu languages, from Arabic: There are, however a few recent loanwords from English in this class, though more recent loanwords are much more common in class 9a.
 * itunda/matunda: fruit/fruits
 * icungwa/macungwa: orange/oranges
 * igwavá/magwavá: guava/guavas
 * ibilingani/mabilingani: eggplant/eggplants
 * ikála/makála: piece of charcoal/charcoal
 * ikí/makí: egg/eggs
 * ibwe/mabwe: stone/stones
 * ibóko/mabóko: arm/arms
 * ino/mano: tooth/teeth
 * iso/maso: eye/eyes
 * itwi/matwi: ear/ears
 * ipapu/mapapu: lung/lungs
 * ifu/mafu: cloud/clouds
 * ibabí/mababí: leaf/leaves
 * ipása/mapása: twin/twins
 * maji: water
 * mafúta: fat, grease
 * magazí: blood
 * maté: saliva
 * matope: mud
 * makelele: noise
 * malipo: payment
 * manéla: ladder
 * matalatála: glasses
 * mabulúgwe: trousers, pants
 * idilisha/madilisha: window/windows (From Arabic drīša)
 * idubu/madubu: bear/bears (From Arabic dubb)
 * iguniya/maguniya: sack/sacks (From Arabic gūniyya)
 * itofali/matofali: brick/bricks (From Arabic tafal)
 * isoko/masoko: market/markets (From Arabic sūq)
 * ikándela/makándela: candle/candles (From English candle)
 * itawuló/matawuló: towel/towels (From English towel)
 * ikéteni/makéteni: curtain/curtains (From English curtain)

Ki-bi class
The ki-bi class is known as class 7 and the singular and class 8 in the plural. It is one of the rarer classes in KiBantu. Its primary semantic field is tools and manufactured objects, however, the majority of nouns in this class do not fall into that category. These words for tools usually aren't derived from other nouns. The ki-bi class, however is almost always used as the class for language names, and in fact, is used as such in the name "KiBantu", meaning both "Bantu language" and "language of the people" in KiBantu. Some more language names are as follows:
 * kijiko/bijiko: spoon/spoons
 * kibiliti/bibiliti: match/matches
 * kilatu/bilatu: shoe/shoes
 * kitambala/bitambala: fabric/fabrics
 * Kiswahili: Swahili language
 * Kishona: Shona language
 * Kixhosa: Xhosa language
 * Kizulu: Zulu language
 * Kicewá: Chichewa language
 * Kingelesi: English language
 * Kifalansa: French language

N class
Classes 9 and 10 are collectively called the N class. This is because the singular and plural of this class both take a homorganic nasal prefix. The only way the number of these classes is distinguished is through verbal concord. This class contains mostly animal names, and though all the prior mentioned classes except 1 and 2 have some animals within them, classes 9 and 10 contain the majority of animal names. The rest of the nouns in this class are generally miscellaneous, however, this class too has several nouns derived from verbs. Though these often end in -o like the derived nouns in other classes, this is not always the case.
 * nyama: animal/animals
 * mbúzi: goat/goats
 * mfísi: hyena/hyenas
 * mpúku: mouse/mice
 * mvubú: hippo/hippos
 * ndá: louse/lice
 * ngombé: cow/cows
 * njíwa: dove/doves
 * nkálá: crab/crabs
 * nsíndí: squirrel/squirrels
 * nzovu: elephant/elephants
 * kubala: to count → mbala: time, iterations/times, iterations
 * kulóta: to dream → ndóto: dream/dreams
 * kuféma: to breathe → mfémo: breath/breaths
 * kufísha: to hide → mfísho: secret

A subset of the N class, called 9a and 10a, is the largest class in KiBantu. It takes all the same concords as regular nouns in the N class, but there is no nasal prefix. About 1/3rd of all KiBantu nouns fall into this subclass. This class consists primary of foreign loanwords, and over 80% of foreign loanwords in KiBantu are placed into this class. This includes loanwords from English: There is also a significant contribution from Arabic, as in the i-ma class: A few Persian loanwords are in this class as well: Loans from the Romance languages, primarily Portuguese and French, make up the final significant chunk of loanwords in this class: Not all words in class 9a are foreign in origin. Quite a few are of native Bantu origin, but occur in languages where the nasal prefix is not used before unvoiced consonants, primarily Swahili and Shona. As such, there words are often loaned into KiBantu without the prefix. A few class 9a nouns can be mistaken for nouns of other classes because they seem to have a class prefix when they actually do not. Though these exceptions are relatively few, they must be memorized:
 * keki: cake/cakes (From English cake)
 * búku: book/books (From English book)
 * hoteli: hotel/hotels (From English hotel)
 * ápola: apple/apples (From English apple)
 * sabúni: soap (From Arabic ṣābūn)
 * falási: horse/horses (From Arabic faras)
 * zabibu: grape/grapes (From Arabic zabīb)
 * dini: religion/religions (From Arabic dīn)
 * pamba: cotton (From Persian panbe)
 * lángi: color/colors (From Persian rang)
 * pilipili: pepper/peppers (From Persian pelpel)
 * balafu: ice (From Persian barf)
 * kamyó: truck/trucks (From French camion)
 * pasi: clothing iron/clothing irons (From French repasser)
 * avoká: avocado/avocados (From French avocat)
 * bendéla: flag/flags (From Portuguese bandeira)
 * mézá: table/tables (From Portuguese mesa)
 * sóni: shame
 * cupa: bottle/bottles
 * twiga: giraffe/giraffes
 * síku: day/days
 * mita: meter (not class 4)
 * injini: engine (not class 5)
 * mashíni: machine (not class 6)
 * matilesi: mattress (not class 6)
 * buvi: spider (not class 14)
 * buléki: brake (not class 14)

Lu-N class
The lu class is called class 11, however, there is no class 12 to act as its plural. Instead, class 10 acts as the plural for lu class nouns. This class has nearly merged with class 14 in Swahili; however it is still a completely separate class in KiBantu. It is the rarest noun class in KiBantu, but as a result it is one of the most semantically coherent. Nearly all nouns in this class are long, relatively flat things. Body parts are among the most salient members of this category: Many long, flat objects are in this class as well:
 * lubavu/mbavu: rib/ribs
 * lulími/ndími: tongue/tongues
 * lunwéle/nwéle: a hair/hair
 * lwála/nyála: fingernail/fingernails
 * lukúni/nkúni: piece of firewood/firewood
 * lushíngé/nshíngé: needle/needles
 * lwembe/nyembe: razor blade/razor blades
 * lubawo/mbawo: board/boards
 * lupánga/mpánga: sword/swords

Bu class
The bu class is class 14. This class is mostly coherent, as it primarily encompasses abstract concepts. As such, most nouns in the class do not have a plural form. A scant few nouns in this class can nevertheless be pluralized in the ma class. The abstract concepts that this class contains are most often derived from nouns, verbs, or adjectives: Country names can also be derived, with some regularity, from the names of languages: There are a few nouns in the bu class which do not fall into either of these categories, but they do not have a plural. These nouns are generally lumpy or round in some way: There is a final subset of nouns in this class which take ma- in the plural. There is little that unites that semantically, so they must be memorized: A few loanwords that begin with bu- have also entered from other languages. They are almost always placed in class 14:
 * kulima: to farm → bulimo: agriculture
 * muntu: human → buntu: humanity
 * mwána: child → bwána: childhood
 * -cace: few → bucace: scarcity
 * Kifalansa: French → Bufalansa: France
 * Kingelesi: English → Bwingelesi: England
 * Kicina: Chinese → Bucina: China
 * bowa: mushroom
 * busó: face
 * bongó: brain
 * bugali: porridge
 * bushánga/mashánga: bead/beads
 * bwáto/máto: boat/boats
 * bukondé/makondé: net/nets
 * butá/matá: bow/bows
 * busitani/masitani: garden/gardens (From Arabic bustān)
 * bundúki/mandúki: gun/guns (From Arabic bunduq)
 * bulashi/malashi: brush/brushes (From English brush)
 * bulankéti/malankéti: blanket/blankets (From English blanket)

Ku Class
The ku class, or class 15, is a unique class grammatically. Verbs are fundamentally a bare root in KiBantu, but verbs must take the class 15 prefix when used in isolation or as the compliment of an auxiliary verb. All verbal infinitives are in this class, and they often act just as infinitives or gerunds do in English.
 * kulála: to sleep
 * kwenda: to go
 * kubóna: to see
 * kuféma: to breathe
 * kuma: to be dry
 * kógela: to swim

The Locative Classes
The final three noun classes are known as classes 16, 17, and 18, and are not considered primary noun classes like the first thirteen. This is because, in most cases, they are added to a noun in addition to the class prefix it already has. Like other classes, however, the locative classes still take concords and adjectives, verbs, demonstratives and prepositions can agree with them.

The pa locative class:

Known as class 16 numerically, the pa locative represents a definitive location at or on a place or surface. This locative, however, is less used than 17. There are a few words that are inherently in this class. They are often derived from other nouns. They can be considered adverbs, but they often act like nouns: The ku locative class:
 * isoko: market → paisoko: at the market
 * mugulu: leg → pamugulu: on the leg
 * madilisha: windows → pamadilisha: on the window
 * ápola: apple → pápola: on the apple
 * pakáti: inside, between, among
 * pansí: bottom, down
 * panze: outside
 * pazulu: top, up
 * pambele: forward

Class 17, the ku locative class, in the most complicated of the three locative classes, but it is also the most commonly used. At its core, it represents a more indefinite or general location. Knowing when to use class 17 rather than class 16 can be difficult, but 17 can generally be used when the speaker is being less specific about where something is. It can also be used with certain verbs to contextually mean to or from, rather than at or on. There are just two words that belong to this class inherently:
 * kikalo: bridge → kukikalo: on a bridge
 * bitenga: roofs → kubitenga: on roofs
 * kwenda kunyumbá "to go home"
 * kwenda kushuli "to go to school"
 * kulya: right
 * kushoto: left

The mu locative class:

The mu locative class, or class 18, expresses interiority. Basically, it shows that that the noun with this prefix is containing another noun within it. The prefix of this class is homophonous with that of both class 1 and class 3.
 * sandúku: box → musandúku: in a box
 * ndege: airplane → mundege: on an airplane
 * makondé: nets → mumakondé: in nets
 * mulomo: mouth → mumulomo: in the mouth
 * izíko: fireplace → mwizíko: in the fireplace

Noun Class Derivation
Most noun roots in KiBantu are connected with a single meaning. Occasionally, however, several words of distinct meaning can be derived from a single root. The most varied example of this is the root -ntu, which can be used to derive a meaning be on the prototypical meaning of the class Most derived roots, however, relate more clearly in meaning. The root -tí, which primarily means tree, can be used to derive a few wooden objects: Most roots, however, don't have more than one variant:
 * muntu/bantu: person/people
 * kintu/bintu: thing/things
 * buntu: humanity
 * pantu/kuntu: place
 * mutí/mití: tree/trees
 * kití/bití: chair/chairs (thing made from a tree)
 * lutí/ntí: stick/sticks (long, extended part of a tree)
 * kilevu/bilevu: chin/chins
 * ndevu: beard/beards


 * bitá: war
 * butá/matá: bow/bows

Noun Class Concord
As stated previously, in KiBantu many words change based on the class of the nouns involved. Though the noun prefix has already been covered, the subject, the prefix of the adjective and the genitive particle -á also change based on the class of the word it agrees with. There are more words that agree with a noun's class, but this is just a general overview. Classes 2, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18 are entirely regular, and require little memorization. Class 5 is almost regular, but the subject i- differs from the rest of the concords, which use some variant of li-. Noun classes 3, 4, 6, 9, and 10 (all of which start with nasals) can be considered to have two sets of prefixes: one precedes nouns and adjectives, while the other is used in all other concords. Class 1 is the most irregular class, and the only one outside of the pronominal concords to have a truly divergent form for the subject and the object; the class 1 form of the genitive particle is irregular as well.

In more casual spoken language, only two concords may be distinguished: classes 1 and 2 and whatever they agree with take their normal concords, while anything modified by all other classes (except the locative classes) take the class 9 and 10 concords. Each noun prefix keeps its unique singular and plural, but any verbal subjects and objects, adjectives, or particles act as if they are agreeing with the N class.

Personal Pronouns
Because KiBantu is a pro-drop language, personal pronouns are not seen as often as in English. They are indicated most often through verbal prefixes which almost act like noun class concords, though independent forms exist as well. Like nouns, the independent forms of pronouns do not change based on whether they are the subject or object of the sentence. Nevertheless, the 2nd person singular and 3rd person singular verbal prefixes do have different forms based on whether they are the subject or object. Note that the 3rd person prefixes are represented by the subject and object prefixes of the mu-ba class. The 3rd person prefixes listed on this list, therefore, can only be used for human beings. The pronoun yeye can, however, be used for any animate object, but not inanimate ones. The reflexive infix is a unique form only seen in a verb's object slot. It refers back to the subject, and is translated as one of the pronouns suffixed with -self in English. For example, ndijiosha means "I wash myself" while bajiosha means "they wash themselves". The possessive forms of pronouns are not inflected like adjectives, but instead like the genitive preposition -á. For example, mwána wangu is the correct way to say "my child", rather than *mwána mwangu.

Demonstratives
Like in many Bantu languages, KiBantu has three types of demonstratives: a proximal, distal, and remote form. These correspond to the "this", "that", and "yonder" of English. In addition, the distal form is used to discuss something previously mentioned. In general, the proximal form is based on the subject concord of its class. Like in English, these forms can be used as standalone nouns. The distal form is based on the proximal form with an -o replacing its final vowel. Finally, the remote form is the subject concord with the suffix -ya added to the end. Like in many other cases, the class 1 variants of the demonstrative pronouns are slightly irregular. The distal pronoun also acts as a relative pronoun. Whether it is acting as a subject or an object can be distinguished by using an object marker in the verb: Additionally, the class 16 distal pronoun is used to mean "when", even when not agreeing with a class 16 noun. It is usually placed before the verb it modifies:
 * mulúme uyo abína "the man who is dancing"
 * mukázi uyo ndipenda "the women whom I love"
 * mukázi uyo andipenda "the women who loves me"
 * ndipenda kulya mupunga uwo upikwa kwá muvuke "I like to eat steamed rice" (lit. I like to eat rice that is cooked with steam)
 * apo ndalya bugali, ndasángala "when I ate porridge, I was happy.
 * mpindi mozi apo twakwéla ntaba, twagwa "once when we were climbing up a mountain, we fell.

Interrogatives
There are several interrogatives in KiBantu which vary in how they are used. Most behave like adjectives, but a few behave like standalone nouns. The interrogatives are not relative pronouns as they are in English; relative constructions are accomplished through different means.

The interrogative -pi translates to "which", "what", or "what kind of" in English. Unlike the demonstratives, it is declined as a regular adjective. Though -pi can not usually act as a standalone noun, when combined with the locative prefixes to create papi, kupi, and mupi, it can be used as "where".

The words náni and níni mean "who" and "what" respectively. Similar to English, náni is used for human agents while níni is used for things.

Another interrogative that acts as an adjective is -ngapi, which means "how many". It only occurs in the plural, but it acts as a regular adjective.

The adverbial question word lini is used to mean "when". Unlike in English, lini always comes at the end of a sentence.

The interrogatives can all be seen in the following list:

Adjectives
Like in most Bantu languages, there are few true adjectives in KiBantu, with about twenty five in total if the numerals are not counted. Most concepts that would be expressed with adjectives in English are expressed with verbs or genitive constructions in KiBantu. All true adjectives in KiBantu are of native Bantu origin. They are also a closed class, although a few adjectives are idiosyncratically derived from verbs (-kúlu and -kúle from -kúla, -índu from -índa, -boli from -bola). As seen previously, most adjectives inflect based on noun class. However, the numeral kúmi "ten" is the only invariable adjective. Generally, adjectives in KiBantu refer to size, quantity, or perceived quality.

Size

 * -fúpi: short
 * -gáli: wide
 * -kúle: far, distant
 * -lé: long, tall
 * -ncí: small, little
 * -néni: big, large

Quantity

 * -cace: few
 * -ingi: many, a lot
 * -ngapi: how many
 * -ose: all, every

Quality

 * -bí: bad
 * -bíshi: unripe, raw
 * -boli: rotten
 * -dála: old
 * -índu: black, dark
 * -inye: other, another
 * -káli: sharp, strong
 * -kúlu: great, main
 * -kúndú: red
 * -pi: which
 * -shá: new, young
 * -tupu: empty
 * -yéla: white, bright
 * -zima: alive, healthy
 * -zuli: good

Basic Numerals
The numbers 1-10 are treated as adjectives in KiBantu. For the numbers 1-10, the independent names of the numerals used in counting are the same as their adjective counterparts: Compound numerals in which the two numbers are being added are written using na between them. In these cases, all numbers in the compound still inflect for noun class. Therefore, kumi na -mozi means "eleven", kumi na -bilí means "twelve", etc.
 * -mozi: one
 * -bilí: two
 * -tátu: three
 * -ne: four
 * -tánu: five
 * -tándátu: six
 * -nsambo: seven
 * -náne: eight
 * -kenda: nine
 * kumi: ten

In compound numerals where the two numbers are being multiplied, the smaller number follows the larger one and they are written as one word. So kumibilí means "twenty", kumitátu means "thirty", etc. These numbers do not inflect for noun class.

To form ordinal numbers, simply make -á precede the numeral. For example, -á mozi means "first", -á bilí means "second", -á kumi means "tenth", and -á kumibilí na tánu means "twenty fifth".

Verbs
Verbs are the most complex part of KiBantu. In addition, verbs are usually the core of a sentence, containing much of the relevant grammatical information. As mentioned before, infinitive verbs are class 15 nouns which start with ku-. Verbal roots almost always end in -a, though there are two exceptions. Though the infinitive of the verb "to be" is kuba, the form -li is used in the present indicative tense. Additionally, the verb kuti "to eat" ends in -i. Unlike Swahili, foreign verbs are fully assimilated and end in -a, though foreign verbs are rare in the first place. Though a few concepts are expressed through changes in the final vowel, most grammatical information is conveyed by using prefixes.

Subject/Object Prefixes
Note that the subject and object prefixes do not directly follow each other when there is a tense prefix; they tense prefix comes between the subject and the object. Note that the object prefix is never required. There are negative forms of the subject prefixes, which are regularly formed by having ha- precede the prefix. In the negative present tense, an -i also replaces the usual root final -a. A table below with the verb kukáta "to cut" is shown. a- is used as the subject for the object slot. When the noun class of a subject or object is unknown or cannot be specified, the mu-ba class is used for humans, the mu-mi class is used for plants, the ki-bi class is the generic class for non-living objects, and the N class is used for animals.

Tense
After the subject prefix, which has already been discussed, the tense prefix follows. The simple present tense has no prefix. Unlike in many Bantu languages, there are only three basic tenses: past, present, and future.

The past tense is formed for most forms by using the infix -ya-. However, the 1st and 2nd person prefixes have irregular compressed forms. In this tense, -i is not used as a final vowel in negative forms like in the present. The future tense is formed by using -la-.
 * abóna "he/she sees" → ayabóna "he/she saw"
 * ndikibaka "I build it → ndakibaka "I built it"
 * haukímbi "you don't run" → hawakímba "you didn't run"
 * baandika "they write" → bayaandika "they wrote"
 * abóna "he sees" → alabóna "he will see"
 * ndikibaka "I build it → ndilakibaka "I will build it"
 * haukímbi "you don't run" → haulakímba "you will not run"

Mood
There are three major moods in KiBantu: the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. The indicative has already been covered, and is used in most statements.

Imperative
The imperative mood is used solely for direct commands and only has a present tense. When addressed towards one person, the imperative is simply the bare verb stem ending in ''-a. ''The imperative does not take a subject. When there is an object, including the reflexive prefix ji-, the final suffix becomes -e. For verbs that are one syllabe, the ku- infinitive remains. When giving an order to multiple people -ni is added as a suffix. There is no negative imperative. The negative subjunctive generally fills that role.
 * kala! "sit down!"
 * bína! "dance!"
 * jifishe "hide!" (lit. "hide yourself")
 * ménye macungwa! "peel the oranges!"
 * kuza apa! "come here!"
 * kulye macungwa! "eat the oranges!
 * kala → kalani "(you all) sit down!"
 * jifishe → jifisheni "(you all) hide!"
 * ménye macungwa! → ményeni macungwa! "(you all) peel the oranges!"

Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood is used in many more cases than the imperative. The regular subjuctive is created by placing an -e vowel at the end of the verbal root. The negative subjuctice does not use the regular ha- prefix, but rather -si- between the subject and object. The subjunctive has four primary purposes. In general, the subjunctive must be used after the following verbs:
 * Used to form negative commands:
 * usife! "don't die!"
 * nusilye macungwa! "(you all) don't eat the oranges!"
 * usijifishe "don't hide!"
 * Also used to form additional commands in the same sentence as one imperative command. Two or more imperative commands do not occur in the same sentence:
 * enda kukisímá na uteke maji "go to the well and fetch some water"
 * wakisa televisheni, ukale, na uyitazame "turn on the TV, sit down, and watch it"
 * Used to advise or in a hortative way:
 * tuende kupaki! "let's go to the park!"
 * ulye mboga zako "you should eat your vegetables"
 * bantu bapendane "people should love each other"
 * And finally, the subjunctive is used after certain conjunctions or verbs that express obligation or necessity.
 * ndisoma ili ndifúnde "I read so that I learn"
 * ayataka muoshe mavali yanu "she wanted you to wash your clothes"
 * kudinga "to need"
 * kulikya "to hope"
 * kutaka "to want"

Derivations
Verbal derivations consist of numerous endings which can modify the meaning of the base verb. Unlike in other areas of KiBantu, the verbal extensions have a vestige of vowel harmony. This usually manifests in the each suffix having two forms: one which comes after the vowels -a, -i, and -u, while the other follows -e and -o. Suffixes that begin with a-, however, only have one form.

Applicative: -ela/ila
The applicative is the suffix that can produce the widest variety of meanings of all the KiBantu derivational suffixes. It is sometimes called the "prepositional" suffix, as these verbs often translate to a verb and a preposition (most often "to" or "for") in English. Many applicative verbs can take both a direct and indiect object. However, many applicative verbs can have just one object.
 * kulila: to cry, weep → kulilila: to mourn, weep for
 * kuléta: to bring → kulétela: to bring to
 * kuvota: to vote → kuvotela: to vote for

Causitive: -esa/isa
The causitive is used to make intransitive verbs, or rarely adjectives, transitive. It can also sometimes be used on other transitive verbs.
 * kufúnda: to learn → kufúndisa: to teach
 * kugwa: to fall → kugwisa: to fall
 * kuseka: to laugh → kusekesa: to make laugh

Conversive: -ola/ula
The conversive forms a verb that means the opposite of what its original form. Like in many Bantu languages, this suffix no longer produces new words, and is only used in a few pre-established words:
 * kufisha: to hide → kufishula: to reveal, expose
 * kufúnga: to open → kufúngula: to close
 * kuvala: to put on (clothes) → kuvalula: to undress
 * kuziba: to block → kuzibula: to unblock

Passive: -wa/ewa/iwa
The suffix -wa is a passive suffix which is applied directly to the root of a verb without the final -a. Verbs whose bare roots end in -wa or -ya (but not -nya) take -ewa or -iwa instead, depending on vowel harmony rules. An agent can be stated by using the preposition na following the passive verb, much like the "by" of English.
 * kubóna: to see → kubónwa: to be seen
 * kubaka: to build → kubakwa: to be built
 * kulya: to eat → kulyiwa: to be eaten
 * kusíya: to abandon → kusíyiwa: to be abandoned

ndibóna mbwá: I see the dog → mbwá ibónwa na mimi: the dog is seen by me

ulya bilyo: you are eating food → bilyo bilyiwa na wewe: the food is eaten by you

Mediopassive: -eka/ika
This derivational stem is also often called the stative. At its most basic level, it makes transitive verbs intransitive. It basically acts like the passive without implying an agent. This extension can also be used to express capability or potential of being done, often translated using the "-able" suffix of English. Often, a single verb can have both of these meanings. For example, kubúlika can either mean "to break" or "to be breakable" depending on the context.
 * kubóna: to see → kubóneka: to appear
 * kubúla: to break (something) → kubúlika: to break, to be broken
 * kusoma: to read → kusomeka: to be readable, legible
 * kulya: to eat → kulyika: to be edible

Unlike the passive suffix, the preposition na cannot be used to imply an agent.

Reciprocal: -ana
The reciprocal adds the meaning of "each other" to the verb:
 * kubóna: to see → kubónana: to see each other
 * kufúndisa: to teach → kufúndisana: to teach each other
 * kumanya: to know → kumanyana: to know each other

Prepositions
Like true adjectives, prepositions are rare in KiBantu. There are only two true prepositions, and both have been mentioned previously: -á and na.

-á can be used with certain nouns to create constructions that are similar to English adjectives: -á has an additional use. If used in its class 17 form, as kwá, it can be used to mean "from" or "out of". kwá can also having the meaning of "using" or "by means of"
 * ajabu: wonder → -á ajabu: wonderous, amazing
 * nguvu: strength → -á nguvu: strong
 * mbiyo: speed → -á mbiyo: fast
 * basáli: inhabitants → -á basáli: inhabited
 * mulúme kwá Tanzaniya "a man from Tanzania"
 * ndaténga matunda kwá muwebi "I bought fruit from a merchant"
 * ayakifúla kwá nyundo yá nsímbi "he forged it using an iron hammer"
 * ndilashinda timu nyinye kwá bongó "I will beat the other team using intelligence"

In addition, some verbal infinitives can be used in ways that resemble prepositions: All other words that are typically prepositions in English are translated by using what are called complex prepositions. These prepositions combine adverbs or nouns with -á in order to make words that function as prepositions. This is usually done with words that describe location:
 * ndiweza kwimba leta zose kusóka A kwenda Z "I can sing every letter from A to Z" (lit. I can sing every letter coming from A going to Z)
 * nyumá: back, rear → nyumá yá: behind, after
 * mbele: front → mbele yá: in front of, before
 * panze: outside → panze pá: outside of
 * pantu: place → pantu pá: instead of

Adverbs
Firstly, there are a few words in KiBantu that are adverbs by default. These are usually borrowed from Swahili, and they are invarialbe. There are also a few words that can act as adverbs, as well as nouns. These tend to refer either to time or location: True adjectives can act like adverbs as well. Unlike in Swahili, the bare form of the adjective is used. They are also used following the verb: Analogous to the genitive adjectives are the prepositional adverbs. They are formed just like the genitive adjectives, but always use the class 17 kwá form.
 * sana: very
 * tena: again
 * sasa: now
 * lelo: today
 * zulo: yesterday
 * kulya: right
 * pakáti: inside
 * twenza zuli "we are doing well"
 * wapika bí sana nyama "you cooked the meat very badly"
 * mbiyo: speed → kwá mbiyo: quickly

Conditionals
Conditionals in KiBantu are formed by using the conjunction: kana, meaning "if". The verb stays in in the indicative mood: The word kana can also be used to mean "whether" in indirect questions:
 * kana uténga bilyo, uweza kulya "if you bought food, you would be able to eat"
 * kana bandikólela, ndibalipa falánga nyingi "if they worked for me, I would pay them a lot of money"
 * ndabúnza kana wacelwa "I asked whether he was late."

Vocabulary
For a full dictionary, see: here.