Lengryis

Brief Overview
Lengryis is a mixed language (like Michif in Canada) spoken several centuries from now. It is a hybrid of English, Japanese and Thai. Phrases are usually right branching, and the word order is SVO and wh in situ. Tone is used both grammatically and phonemically. The vowel system is relatively simple, but there is a complex system of consonant mutation, sandhi and allophony.

Vowels
Lengryis has 5 vowels.

i - /i/ - Must be preceded by a glide, either /j/ or /w/.

u - /ɯ/ - Is rounded to [u] when preceded by /w/. It cannot be preceded by /j/.

e - /ɛ/ - Is raised to [e] when preceded by /j/.

o - /o/ - Some speakers centralise this to /ə/ when preceded by /j/.

a - /a/ - Cannot be preceded by /j/.

Diphthongs
There are 4 diphthongs.

ea - /əa/ - Has the allophone [ia] when preceded by /j/.

iu - /yu/ - Is unrounded to [iɯ] when preceded by /j/.

au - /au/

ai - /ai/ - In rapid speech, some speakers pronounce this as [ɛi] or [ei], especially when preceded by /j/. If it is preceded by /w/, some speakers pronounced it as [oi].

Vowel Length
Vowels and diphthongs are long in the final syllables of words, and short elsewhere. Vowel length used to be phonemic, but this is no longer the case in standard Lengryis because the long vowels either became diphthongs or glide + vowel sequences.

Tone
The final syllable of each word takes one of 5 contour tones. This is used for both lexical and grammatical purposes. These are described below in terms of numbers, 5 indicating the pitch at the top of a speaker's vocal range, and 1 indicating a pitch at the bottom of a speaker's vocal range.

a - High Level (44) - Some speakers pronounce this is a High Rising Tone (45).

â - High Falling (42)

à - Low Falling (21) - Some speakers pronounce this as a Low Level Tone (22) or (11).

á - Low Rising (15)

ä - Falling Rising (314)

Non final syllables of a word take one of 2 pitches, High or Low. These are not phonemic, however and can be predicted based on the tone of the final syllable of the word.

If the final syllable has High Level Tone, High Falling Tone or Falling Rising Tone, then any preceding syllables in the word will be pronounced with a High Pitch.

If the final syllable of the word has Low Falling Tone or Low Rising Tone, then any preceding syllables in the word will be pronounced with a Low Pitch.

In multisyllabic words, it is common for speakers to merge the High Falling and Low Falling Tones into a single Falling Tone (31). It is also common for the Low Rising and the Falling Rising Tone to merge into a single Rising Tone (24). Neither of these mergers create any new homophones, however because the non-final syllables of the word will still be pronounced with different pitches.

Consonants
Counting the number of consonant phonemes in Lengryis is difficult, because of the number of allophones and sandhi processes in the language. Lengryis speakers traditionally analyse their language as having 23 consonants, however word initially each consonant has a "Strong" and a "Weak" version. If the consonant is no longer word initial (e.g. if the word takes a prefix or is compounded), then the contrast between Strong and Weak is neutralised. Depending on the consonant, this can happen in one of 3 ways. The Strong consonant could take on the pronounciation of its Weak counterpart (whose pronunciation is unchanged), or the Weak consonant could take on the pronunciation of its Strong counterpart (whose pronunciation is likewise unchanged), or both consonants could take on a new pronunciation. Like tone, the Strong / Weak distinction is used for both grammatical purposes and also to distinguish pairs of unrelated words.

Complicating matters even further, Lengryis has many sounds that are not considered phonemes in themselves, but merely sequences of two underlying phonemes (the second one is almost always /j/ or /w/). For example a word initial [dz] is underlyingly a sequence of /nd/ and /j/.

The consonants of Lengryis are listed below in groups of 3. First the Strong variant is described, then its Weak counterpart, and finally the consonant that the Strong and Weak pairs merge into non-word initially. A consonant in bold can be a syllable coda.

ph - /ph/ - By themselves, bilabial stops and nasals are usually velarised, however the sequence /Bj/ (where B is a bilabial stop or nasal) is often pronounced as simply a palatalised consonant, without the /j/ being pronounced.

mp - /mph/

ph - /ph/ Non word initially, this consonant is lightly aspirated if at all. It is common to pronounce it as a tenuis stop [p].

p - /p/ - Word initially, some speakers give this a weakly ejective pronunciation.

b - /b/ - Word initially, this is pronounced with a slack voiced pronunciation about 50% of the time.

b - /b/ - In syllable codas, this is in free variation with [p].

bh - /ɓ/ - Strongly imploded, contrasts with /b/ in many words.

mb - /mb/ - This is sometimes heard with stiff voice, and occasionally even creaky voice.

bh - /ß/ - This is in free variation with /v/. The sequence /ßj/ is pronounced as [ɥ]. The sequence /ßw/ is usually pronounced simply as [w].

mh - /mʔ/

m - /m/

m - /m/

f - /f/ - The combination /fj/ is pronounced as [çw], and the combination /fw/ is pronounced as [fɣ] word initially.

j - /ɣ/ - Word initially, the combination /ɣj/ is pronounced as [v], and the combination /ɣw/ is pronounced as [w].

f - /f/ - The combination /fj/ is heard as [çw], and the combination /fw/ is heard as [ʍ]. In syllable codas, this is in free variation with [v].

t' - /t'/ - Unlike the other coronal stops which are usually dental, the ejective is usually alveolar.

t - /t/

t - /t/ - In a syllable coda, this is pronounced as [θ] or [ð].

th - /th/

nth - /nth/

th - /θ/

d - /d/

nd - /nd/ - The sequence /ndj/ is pronounced as [dz].

d - /z/ - This can coalesce with /j/ into a voiced palatal fricative [ʝ]

dh - /ɗ/

dv - /ð/

dh - /d/

nh - /nʔ/ - All dental nasals, whether glottalised or voiced, coalesce with /j/ to form a palatal nasal [ɲ] or [ɲʔ].

n - /n/

n - /n/

s' - /ts'/ - This is always an affricate.

s - /ts/

s - /ts/ - In a syllable coda this is unspecified for lateralness i.e. it is in free variation with [tɬ]

'sv - /s/ - Word initially, the sequence /sj/, is pronounced as [ʈʂ].

v - /θ/ - Word initially, the sequence /θj/ is pronounced as [ʂ]

v - /ð/ - Non word initially, the sequence /ðj/ is pronounced as [s], and the sequence /ðw/ is pronounced as [sw].

z - /z/ - Word initially, the sequence /zj/ is pronounced as [ɮ].

y - /j/ - Word initially, the sound [ɭ] can be heard, but this is underlyingly /jj/. Word initially, the sequence /jw/ is pronounced as [ɥ]

z - /ɣ/ - Non word initially, the sequence /ɣj/ is pronounced as [ɮ]. In syllable codas, this is in free variation with a palatal fricative.

lh - /ɬ/

l - /l/ - This is in free variation with [ɫ]. The combination /ly/ is usually heard as [λ].

l - /l/ - This is in free variation with [ɫ]. The combination /ly/ is usually heard as [λ].

rh - /ʁ/ - This is in free variation with [r], [ʀ], [ɹʀ] - These sounds are in free variation. The combination /rj/ is pronounced as a retroflex approximant /ɻ/.

r - /ɹ/ - This consonant is palatalised when followed by a /j/, which is usually not pronounced.

r - /ɹ/ - Some speakers pronounced this as a tap [ɾ] when it is between vowels. This consonant is palatalised when followed by a /j/, which is usually not pronounced.

c - /kh/ - The combination /khj/ is pronounced as a palatal aspirated stop [ch]. The combination /khw/ is usually pronounced as a doubly articulated stop [kph], but only if it is word initial.

ch - /x/ - The combination /xj/ is pronounced as a pharyngeal fricative [ħ]. The combination /xw/ is pronounced as a labialised pharyngeal fricative [ħw].

c - /kh/ - Word internally, this is in free variation with unaspirated [k].

k' - /k'x/ - Any sequence /Kj/ (where /K/ is a velar affricate) is pronounced as a palatal affricate.

k - /kx/

k - /gɣ/ - In syllable codas, this is pronounced as [k].

kh - /kxh/

nk - /ŋkh/

kh - /kx/

ngh - /ŋʔ/ - The combination /ŋʔj/ is pronounced as a palatal implosive [ʄ]. The combination /ŋʔw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated glottalised nasal [ŋmʔ].

ng - /ŋ/ - The combination /ŋj/ is pronounced as a retroflex fricative [ʐ]. The combination /ŋw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated nasal [ŋm]. Both these rules only apply word-initially.

ng - /ŋ/ - After a consonant, this is pronounced and written as a voiced stop g - /g/. Non word initially, the combination /ŋj/ is pronounced as just [j].

tq - /txh/ - This is a non-homorganic affricate. The stop component is dental, and the fricative release is usually either velar or uvular [thχ]. Some speakers release it into an uvular trill [thʁ], or less commonly an alveolar (usually fricative) trill [thr]. A few speakers simply pronounce this as an aspirated uvular stop [qh] or an uvular affricate [qχh]. The combination /txhj/ is pronounced as an aspirated retroflex affricate [ʈʂh], and the combination /txhw/ is pronounced as a labialised retroflex affricate [ʈʂhw]

tsh - /tsh/

tsh - /ɬ/ - The prestige pronunciation of this is a lateral affricate [tɬh], but much more often it is a lateral fricative.

q' - /q'/ - The combination /q'j/ is pronounced as [kj], and the combination /q'w/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated ejective [kp'].

q - /q/ - The combination /qj/ is pronounced as [k], and the combination /qw/ is pronounced as a doubly articulated tenuis stop [kp], but only word initially.

q - /ʔ/ - This used to be a pharyngeal stop [ʕ], and although this pronounciation is becoming archaic ,it can still be heard

l' - /ɺʔ/ - Utterance initially (and sometimes phrase initially), this is usually pronounced as a glottal stop [ʔ]. The combination /ɺʔj/ is usually pronounced as a palatalised glottal stop, and likewise the combination /ɺʔw/ is usually pronounced as a labialised glottal stop. Except in the two cases just described, if the preceding word ends in a consonant then this phoneme is only pronounced in extremely careful speech.

' - /H/ - This phoneme is not in the IPA, but could best be described as a creaky voiced [h]. The combination /Hj/ is pronounced as a creaky voiced [j] or [ç], and the combination /Hw/ is pronounced as a creaky voiced /w/.

l' - /ɺʔ/ - This is deleted when not between two vowels. It is only glottalised in the most careful speech, and most speakers merge this into /l/ when it is between two vowels. Speakers who pronounce r as [ɾ] between vowels (instead of the usual [ɹ]) also sometimes pronounce l' as [ɾ].

x - /h/ - The combination /hj/ is pronounced as [ç], and the combination /hw/ is pronounced as [ʍ].

h - /ɦ/ - The combination /ɦj/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [j], and the combination /ɦw/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [w].

h - /ɦ/ - The combination /ɦj/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [j], and the combination /ɦw/ is pronounced as a breathy voiced [w].

Gemination
Any consonant that can occur word internally can be geminated if it is the onset of the final syllable of a non-monosyllabic word, and the preceding syllable ends with either a vowel, /ɹ/ or /ɣ/. In the orthography, this is written as a hypen before the consonant that is geminated i.e. (-t) indicates a geminate t /tt/. Lengryis speakers traditionally analyse this as a property of the word as a whole, similar to tone, as if the word takes a suffix the gemination will shift to the onset of the final syllable. e.g. The word "lwa" with gemination means victimise, and without gemination means wait. By themselves the words are indistinguishable, but when affixed the resultant words are different. Here are the words after attaching the suffixes (l'a) meaning a person who does an action, and (khwon) meaning a person who is affected by an action, and with the atelic verb prefixes (nt) for the active voice and (ngye) for the passive voice, we can construct the following words:

lwa-l'a [lwaɺɺa:]- a victimiser

lwal'a [lwaɺa:] - someone who waits

lwa-khwon [lwakkxwo:n] - a victim

lwakhwon [lwakxwo:n] - someone who another person is waiting for

nta-lwá [nthallwá:] - to victimise (atelic)

ntalwá [nthalwá:] - to wait (atelic)

ngye-lwá [ʐellá:] - to suffer from victimisation (atelic)

ngyelwá [ʐelá:] - to have someone wait for you (atelic)

If r - /ɹ/ and z - /ɣ/ are geminated, then they are pronounced as [ʔɹ] and [ʔɣ] respectively as in the following words. (Remember that l'a is deleted when not between vowels).

mhaz [mʔa:ɣ] - silken.ADJ

mhaz [mʔa:ɣ] - new.ADJ

mha-za [mʔaʔɣa:] - silk maker

mhaza [mʔaɣa:] - renewer

mhaz-khwon [mʔaxkkxwo:n] - one who has silk made for him / her.

mhazkhwon [mʔaxkxwo:n] - one who has something renewed for him

nta-màz [ntammà:ɣ] - to make silk (atelic)

ntamàz [ntamà:ɣ] - to renew (atelic)

ngye-màz [ʐemmà:ɣ] - to have silk made for you (atelic)

ngyemàz [ʐemà:ɣ] - to have something renewed for you (atelic)

The tone changes in the verbs derived from the nouns are regular. In the first two words, the atelic verb has Low Rising Tone because the noun roots began with a Weak initial consonant (l) - /l/. In the latter two words the atelic verb has Low Falling Tone because the noun roots began with a Strong initial consonant (mh) - /mʔ/.

Phonotactics
The range of possible syllables is much less than English. The range of syllable structures is C (j / w) V (ɹ / ɣ) (C). (V stands for a vowel or a diphthong). If there are two consonats in the syllable coda, the second cannot be /ɹ/ or /ɣ/. Voicing is not phonemic for syllable codas, they have the same voicing as the following consonant.

Noun Classes
Lengryis nouns are first divided into two categories, Countable and Uncountable. The division between these is often completely arbitrary e.g. vutkâzs [θuðgɣâ:ɣts] - suitcase is uncountable.

If uncountable nouns do not end in -s, -m, -n or -ng, then they will normally have a High Falling Tone on the last syllable. These nouns can form diminutives by changing this to a High Falling Tone e.g.

mhyidû [mʔizû:] - water changes to mhyidu [mʔizu:] - water.DIM (a small amount of water).

Apart from this Uncountable nouns do not inflect at all.

The morphology of Countable nouns is much richer. All Countable nouns belong to a noun class (the exact number of noun classes in the language varies from speaker to speaker). The noun class that a word belongs to can be predicted by the suffix attached to the noun. Lengryis has an enormous number of nouns that were derived from another noun by changing the noun class e.g. from mea-tyea [meattje:a] - horse (belonging to the animal noun class), we can make new words like mea-l'a [meaɺɺa:] - a horse trainer, mea-khon [meakkxo:n] - a horse rider, mea-nyin [meaɲɲi:n] - a professional horse rider and mea-zyin /meaɮɮi:n/ - a nomadic race. Below is a list of common noun class suffixes (if two are listed together, the former implies a larger object than the latter):

tyea [tje:a] - for animals, furniture

l'a [ɺa:] - for someone or something performing an action (usually human)

khon [kxo:n] - for someone or something (usually human) receiving either a benefit or a negative effect

nyin [ɲi:n] - for humans in a profession

zyin [ɮi:n] - for nationalities or races of humans

twon [two:on] - for plants, clothes

hwon [ɦwo:n] / thaing [θa:iŋ]- for long thin inanimate objects

bhean [ße:an] / rwong [ɹwo:ŋ] - for objects with a hole in them e.g. doors, windows, gates, donuts, rings, bracelets.

lwiub [lwi:ub] - for pictures of another object

lwum [lwu:m] / khan [kxa:n] - for vehicles

khwiu [kxwiu] - for pairs of things

fwang [ʍa:ŋ] - for eggs, embryos, foetuses

veaz [ðe:aɣ] / theang [θe:aŋ]- for roads, rivers, train lines, paths

kwang [gɣa:ŋ] - for organised groups of things

kwan [gɣa:n] - for objects without a constant shape e.g. clouds

khwa [kxwa:] - for ideas, concepts, beliefs, philosophies

kheang [kxe:aŋ] - for body parts

khizt [cçi:çθ] - for lines

daz [za:ɣ] - for machines

(n)gean [ŋe:an] / [ge:an] - for documents

swut [tswu:θ] - for microscopic and barely visible objects

dyeang [ʝe:aŋ] - myet [mje:θ] - for roughly spherical objects

dwak [zwa:k] - for smells, tastes and patterns

deam [ze:am] - for non mechanical tools

thiz [θi:ɣ] - for places

bhaz [ßa:ɣ] / maz [ma:ɣ] - for flat, thin objects

Countable nouns also inflect for singular vs. plural, but this is done by a tone change. Singular nouns have High Level Tone on the final syllable, and plural nouns have High Falling Tone. There are no irregular plurals.