Old Kulashian

Old Kulashian (natively Kullaštū [ku'ɫaʃ.tu:]) is an extinct language. Sad.

Also, it just so happens to be the ancestor language to most Kulashian languages (with the exception of Almikantian, which I intend to be an older sister language to Kulashian, kind of like Icelandic to Kulashian's Middle Norwegian) and the language of liturgy and science in most of Dāimāt.

Consonants
/m n/

/p t k b d g/

/s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ ɦ/ 

/ts dz tʃ dʒ/ 

/ʋ ɾ r l ɫ j/

Vowels
/a ɛ i o u e:/ 

Long vowels are marked by macrons: <ā ē ī ō ū> /a: ɛ: i: o: u:/. /e:/ is already long enough, no need to further lengthen it.

Consonants
Nasals and fricatives can be lengthened, this is marked in writing by doubling the letter.

All non-palatal consonants (except /ɫ/ and /l/, the latter is usually already palatalized) can be palatalized, this is marked by placing  after the "target" consonant.

/e:/ and /i:/ palatalize all preceding consonants except /ɫ/.

/ɦ/ and /ɣ/ both palatalize to [ʝ].

/ʋ/ is labial and is realized as [w] after /j/, /ɦ/ and velar consonants.

Vowels
/i/ is realized as [ɪ] after postalveolar consonants and /ɫ/, as well as when unstressed, and as [ɨ] after /ɫ/ in a stressed syllable, but is always pronounced as [i] word-finally regardless of stress, unless preceded by /ɫ/ or a postalveolar consonant, in which case it's pronounced as [ɪ].

/i:/ and /e:/ are realized as [ɨ:] and [ɛ:] after /ɫ/.

/ɛ/ is lowered when stressed.

Cluster simplification
Both a sound change from Proto-Kulashian and an assimilation process.


 * *ks always becomes ss, so PK *miksō becomes mìssō "book" and *ūk-s becomes ūss "by a cow". (Compare Almikantian miksō, uks)
 * Similarly, *kš always becomes šš. (No example yet.)
 * *lC (where C is any consonant) becomes ll at the end of a syllable, so *sdal-s becomes sdall "by a horse". (Alm. zdalis)
 * *lm always becomes ll, so PK *Almikanti (Almikant-i) becomes Allkàntj (Allkant-j) "Almikanti/Allkantj" through *Almikàntj and *Allikàntj. (Alm. Almikantī)
 * *tt becomes št, so *Allkant-t-ū becomes allkànštū, "Almikantian". This one's more archaic, since it's found in Almikantian as well. (Alm. almikanštū from *Almikant-t-ū)
 * *rs and *rrs both become š at the end of a syllable, so *jūrr-s becomes jūš "by a hand, manually". (Alm. jurs)

Stress
Stress in Kulashian is highly irregular and changes a lot during grammatical processes, but there are a few rules of thumb: For the sake of convenience, stressed short vowels will be marked by a grave accent (e.g. <à>) and stressed long vowels will be marked by a circumflex (e.g. <â>) in this article.
 * word-final /a/ is typically stressed;
 * /e:/ is always stressed;
 * (more to be done)

Note: in newer varieties of Kulashian, unstressed syllables alternate with stressed ones.

Pronouns
Note: a common relative pronoun is il(k)-.

Nouns
Note: plural is formed by -m if the noun is polysyllabic and -mo if it's monosyllabic, except if it's monosyllabic and ends in a consonant cluster, in which case it's -Vm, e.g. irkam "fingers". (pretty sure I'll drop the -o in Kulashian's daughter languages.)

Note: if a noun ends in a (single?) consonant, the singular instrumental ending is -s instead of -(a)rr, so kas "human" > kass, jūrr "hand" > *jūrrs > jūš, ūk "cow" > *ūks > ūss. (irk "finger" > *irks > *irss > išš?)

Note: kúsō could've been changed its meaning from "woman" (and replaced by the word for "wife" in that meaning) to just "female" and yielded the root kus- as a backformation.

Note: a simple affixing of -a and -i to the root kas can lead to kási, meaning "man" as in "human male", and sā (< ssa < ksa < kusá) meaning just "male".

First declension
This declension covers most (if not all) polysyllabic nouns ending in vowels (-a, -o, -i, -u, -ō, -ū). This declension includes all three genders: nouns of this declension ending in -a and -i are masculine, ones ending in -ō are feminine, and ones ending in -o, -u and -ū are neuter.

The stress patterns don't depend on whether the word-final vowel is stressed in the nominative case.

Possessives
Kulashian nouns don't have a true genitive or possessive case. Instead, possessives are formed with help of clitics: enclitics i (masc./neut.), is (fem.) and mi (plural), derived from 3rd person possessive pronouns, (e.g. neghvà i sdal [nɛ'ɣwaj.zdal] "(the) count's horse", svàrkō is sdal ['sʋaɾ.ko:j.stal] "(the) cunt's horse" and sîmam mi xàdžvo ['si:.ma.m:i 'xa.dʒʋo] "cat food") and the proclitic lli, most frequently used to mean "by", "from" and "made of", (e.g. mìssō lli Ukvànti ['mɪ.s:o: ɫu'kwan.ti] "(a) book by Ukvanti").

The clitics are often reduced: i [i] and is [is] are reduced to [j] and [js] respectively after vowels, and lli [ɫɨ] is reduced to [ɫ] before vowels.

Ablaut
Ablaut in Kulashian is usually triggered by back vowels, most notably <ō>, which typically "closes" the root vowel. Older and nonstandard forms were rife with ablaut, but all that's left of it in Minkullaštū is a few ablauted nouns, most of which denote male and female animals and people (usually workers) (e.g. sdìla and sdìlō from sdal) or are personal names (e.g. the theonym Skûma from skômū "tongue").

Note: a strange case is the word svìrka "mage, enchanter, sorcerer", which has two feminine forms with different meanings: the regular svìrkō, which means "sorceress", and the (bizarrely) ablauted svàrkō, which originally meant "witch" or "hag", but has devolved to a common swear word that can mean anything from, well, "witch" to "ill-tempered woman" to "damn!".

Writing system
Note: originally the Kulashian alphabet was pretty straightforward with a bit of ambiguity (a bit like the runes), but then some broke-ass scribescientistkindafellow decided that it'd be nice to invent some letters for consonant clusters, but only the ones that can occur in one syllable, because, you know, parchment is freaking pricy, but this isn't a KSL. That's all so far. And the romanization I created to be both more or less logical and aesthetically pleasing to me. Though it's not a direct transliteration: see  for /ɣ/ and all other digraphs (they're single letters in the Kulashian alphabet) and  for palatalization (natively it's denoted by a tiny irk, the Kulashian , over the "target" letter, so it'd be logical to palatalize using  , but nope,  is prettier and more versatile. never mind that they used to be the same letter).

Appendices

 * /Examples/
 * /Notes/
 * /Vocabulary/