Changes[]
First-stage changes:
*we > *wa (*swefaną > *swafaną) *w > *j / dissimilatory if earlier /*w/ present (*swīkwaną > *swīkjaną) *ww > *g(g)w (*brewwaną > *bregwana; *uwwô > *ugwô) *jj > *ggj (*klajjô > *klaggjô) *wj > *ggj (*awjō > *aggjō) *nhw > *ngw (*þrinhwaną > *þringwaną) *nh > *ng (*ganhtiz > *gangtiz; *hanhaz > *hangaz) *ht > *tt (*hlahtraz > *hlattraz) *hs > *ss (*buhsuz > *bussuz) *Chw > *Cw (*arhwō > *arwō) *hwC > *wC (*jehwlą > *jewlą) *lþ > *ll (*kelþą > *kellą) *nþ > *nn (*hrinþaz > *hrinnaz)
Second-stage changes:
*ē2 > *ē (*hē2r > *hēr) *wē > *wǣ (*kwēniz > *kwǣniz) *ē > *ǣ > *ē (*jērą > *jǣrą; *kwǣniz > *kwēniz) *ǣ > *ā (*jǣrą > *jārą) >> H-Loss << *V1hV2 > V̄1V2 (*jehaną > *jēaną) *Vh > V̄ / _# (*jah > *jā) >> Final vowel shortening << *i > 0 (*mari > *mar) *ai > *i (*hwarjai > *hwarji) *a *ą > 0 (*sīlą > *sīl) *ō > *a, *u (*arwō > *arwa; *būlō > *būla) *ī *į̄ > *i *į (*frōdį̄ > *frōdį) *ǭ > *ǫ/*ų (*paddǭ > *paddǫ, *hwanǭ > *hwanu) *ô ǫ̂ ê > ō ǭ ē (*skiwô > *skiwō) *ū > *u (*sperū > *speru) >> Stressed Vowel Lengthening << *V[-long] > [+long] / #(C(C(C)))_# (*sa > *sā) >> Diphthong shifts << *ju *iu *eu > *iū (*reumu > *riūmu; *steuraz > *stiūraz) *ai > *ei (*stainaz > *steinaz; *saipǫ > *seipǫ) *iū > *jū (*wiūd > *wjūd) >> z-stem /a/ deletion << *a > 0 /_z# (*baraz > *barz) >> A/Ą-umlaut << *i$ > *e / (+a) with one or two consonants in between (*skina > *skena; *digan > *degan) *u$ ū$ > *o *ō / (+a/ą) with one or two consonants in between (*nusa > *nosa; *būla > *bōla) *jū > *jō / (+a/ą) (*ljūga > *ljōga)
Third-stage changes:
>> I-umlaut <<
*a ā > *æ *ē / (+i/ī/j/(ʀ)) (*algiz > *ælgiz; *mawi > *mæwi)
*i > 0 / followed by /z/, final, unstressed (*kwēniz > *kwēnz)
*u ū > *y *ȳ / (+i/ī/j/(ʀ)) (*hūbi > *hȳbi; *wulgi > *wylgi)
*o ō > *ø *ø̄ / (+i/ī/j/(ʀ)) (*frōdį > *frø̄dį)
*aj *oj *uj > *e *ø *y
*j > 0 / vowelless (*netj > *net)
*j > 0 /_[front vowel] (*jestuz > *estuz)
*au > *øy / (+i/ī/j/(ʀ)) (*daujan > *døyjan)
*jū > *ȳ / (+i/ī/j/ʀ) (*bjūdz > *bȳdz; *jūtz > *ȳtz)
>> Stressed changes <<
*e > *ja / short, !_{wrl}V (*erþu > *jarþu)
*VnCV > Ṽ:CV / _# (*ambō > *ą̄bō)
*æ̃: > æ: (*ǣ̨bjō > *ǣbjō)
>> U-umlaut and related changes <<
*a *ā > *ö *ȫ / (+u/ū/w/ggw) (*sagu > *sögu; *jarþu > *jörþu)
*e > * *ø / (+u/ū/w/ggw) (*estuz > *østuz)
*i *ī > *y *ȳ (*mizdu > *myzdu)
*ei > *øy / (+u/ū/w/ggw) (*heiduz > *høyduz)
*w > 0 /_[rounded vowel]
*æ *ǣ > *œ *œ̄ / (+u/ū/w/ggw) (*mæwi > *mœwi; special cases)
*w > 0 / vowelless
*ew *æw *ēw > *ø *ø *ø̄ (*ewl-az > *øl-az; *mæwi > *møi)
*i > *y / _V[+rounded], V[+rounded]_ (*møi > *møy)
*iw *īw > *y *ȳ (*Tīwz > *Tȳz)
>> Deletion and Insertion <<
*i *u > 0 / _C#; in nominatives (*høyduz > *høydz)
*j *w > *i *u / last in word, in a difficult position (*hegj > *hegi; *yzwz > *yzuz)
*VbC > *VuC (*habkz > *haukz)
*VVbC > *VVfC (*tøybz > *tøyfz)
*VbV > *VfV (*ą̄bō > *ą̄fō)
*ufu > *ū (*lufu > *lū)
>> Unstressed changes <<
*ǫ > *a *u (*līnǫ > *līna) *ǭ > *ą *u (*kōknǭ > *kōkną) *ō > *a *u (*kōkō > *kōka) *ē > *i >> General consonant/vowel changes <<
*V[+front]C(C)jV > *VC(C):V (*berją > *berrą)
*VCCjV > *VC:CV (*dopnja > *doppna)
*Vns > *ṼṼ[+low +back]s (*ansz > *ǫ̈̄sz)
*lz *nz *sz > *ll *nn *ss (*pōlz > *pōll; *kwānz > *kwānn; *ą̄sz > *ą̄ss)
*VntC > *ṼtC; sometimes *_nCC (irregular) (*wintrz > *vętrz)
*Vn# > *Ṽ# /not frequent (*swafan > *swafą)
*zr *rz *zd > *rr *rr *rd (*myzd > *myrd; *uzristz > *urristz)
*z > 0 / sometimes after consonants (*sunnemz > *sunnem)
*z > *ʀ (*haukz > *haukʀ)
*nnr *nnʀ > *ðr (*gynnʀ > *gyðr)
*b *d *g > *[b d g] /#_V
*b *d *g > *v *ð *[γ] /!{nl#}_ (*myrd > *myrð)
*[v ð γ] > *[f θ x] /_C[-voiced], C[-voiced]_ (*egsą > *[exsã])
*[xs] > x (*egsą > *exą)
*þ > *ð /!#_ (*trūþʀ > *trūðʀ)
*w > *v (*swafą > *svafą)
*j > 0 / _V[+front -low] (*øggji > *øggi)
*Ṽ > [-nasal] / _CCV
*Vnk *Vnt *Vmp > *Ṽkk *Ṽtt *Ṽpp (*drenkją > *drękkją)
*r > *ʀ / _#, C_C (*gyðr > *gyðʀ)
>> Orthography <<
V: (ā → ā)
Ṽ (ą → ȧ)
V (i → ı)
Ṽ: (ą̄ > ã)
V[+back] (ö ǫ̈ > ǫ ǫ̇
ȫ ǫ̈̄ > ǫ́ ǫ̃)
V[+front] (æ æ̨ > ę ę̇
ǣ ǣ̨ > æ æ̇)
(œ œ̄ > ø ǿ
œ̨ œ̄ > œ œ̇)