Gohon/1

Project page ← Part 1: Phonology and orthography → Part 2: Verb morphology

Phonology

Consonants

	Labial			Coronal				Dorsal		Gutteral			Glottal
	voiceless	voiced	emphatic	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	labialized	voiceless
Nasal		m	mˤ		n
Plosive	p	b	pˤ	t	d			k	g	q
Fricative	(ɸ)			s		(ʃ)	ʒ	ç		χ	ʁ	χʷ	h
Affricate						tʃ	dʒ
Approximant		w							j
Lateral app.				(l̥)	l

Vowels

	Front		Central		Back
	Oral	Nasal	Oral	Nasal	Oral	Nasal
High	i	ĩ	ɨ		u
Mid	e	ẽ	(ə)	ə̃	o	õ
Low			a	ã

Diphthongs

	Front	Back
Oral	eɪ̯	uɨ̯
Nasal	eɪ̯̃	oũ̯

• All four are falling diphthongs.
• /oũ̯/ is rather rare and only appears in a handful of words.
• Sounds like [ɪ̯o] and [u̯a] are analyzed as glide-vowel sequences.

Vowel harmony

Gohon once had a clear front-back contrast of vowels, and the root once determined the form of suffixes. Today, the value of many vowels have changed, and only a limited form of vowel harmony remains, triggered after /g˗/ /q/ /mˤ/ /pˤ/ and /χʷ/. When these consonants are paired with front vowels /e/ /ẽ/ /ɪ/, back vowels in the following suffix change to /e/ or /ẽ/, as in mxelfez “to infuse morality” from mxeli + -foz. With back vowels /a/ /ã/ /o/ /õ/ /u/ in the root, front vowels in the suffix change to /u/ or /õ/.

Notes

The consonantal sounds may be classified to a retracted tongue root feature [rtr]. /q/, /χ/, /χʷ/ and the emphatic consonants /pˤ/ and /mˤ/ are [+rtr]. Other consonants are [-rtr]. /l/ and /n/ may be considered “neutral” sounds as they assimilate to nearby [+rtr] sounds. The [+rtr] sounds are accompanied with expansion of the larynx and have a deep, “hollow” voicing.

• /pˤ/ and /mˤ/ arose from cross-syllabic coalesce of labials and /χ/ and are thus spelled ⟨px⟩ and ⟨mx⟩, respectively.
• /k/ is regular velar [k]. Gohon originally had a pre-velar /k/ and a post-velar /k/, with the pre-velar /k/ later shifting to /c/ then merging with /ç/.
  • /k/ may have an ejective release word-finally to differentiate with /q/.
• /g/ is sometimes also described as “gutteral”, although it is not pronounced with a retracted tongue root, unlike /q/. This is meaningful because it causes front vowels to interact differently with /g/ than with /q/.
  • Instead, its “gutteral” sound is produced by lowering the back of the palate toward the tongue, here transcribed with the post hoc symbol [˗].
  • The most common realization is described as “bunched” [g͡ɣ˗], a post-velar affricate with the upper jaw lowered so that the upper teeth approach the lower teeth.
  • A variant is described as “molar”, in which the upper and lower teeth are brought in contact, and the plosive part of the sound itself becomes devoiced. It may be written as [k͡ɣ˗].
  • For some speakers, the sound may be merged with [k] or reduced to [ɣ˗].
  • This sound, which is theorized to have been uvular [ɢ] at a time, has posed difficulties for consistent production such that several approximations or compensations have developed.
• /ɸ/ is a “puff of air” with labial frication and not rounded.
• /ç/ comes from an archaic /c/.
  • It is still pronounced [c] after a fricative.
• /χ/ is uvular [χ], although the frication is only audible before /o/ and /e/.
  • When [χ] is in a word-final position, the previous vowel becomes breathy-voiced.
• Consonants are usually not geminated.
  • Some words are spelled with ⟨ss⟩, but are pronounced [t̚s] or [ʔs], similar to some realizations of English “Watson”. The double-s convention was adopted because [t̚s] would be misunderstood as [t͡ʃ] were it spelled ⟨ts⟩.

• /ə/ is a variant of /e/ in adpositions. They are minimally contrastive. The more prominent difference between these two phonemes is one of tone instead.
• /ə̃/, spelled with ⟨n⟩, is distinct from /ẽ/ ⟨en⟩. It occurs in content words and affixes, unlike /ə/. Realization of a syllable containing /ə̃/ depends on the preceding consonant.
  • ⟨tn⟩ is [ʈə̃].
  • ⟨ln⟩ is [ɫɫ̩̃].
  • In ⟨qn⟩, the /q/ is softened to a glide and behaves like a syllable stop (like the soft ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish) and /ə̃/ becomes a syllabic nasal [ŋ̍].
  • ⟨jn⟩ is [jɲ̍].
• /u/ is fully rounded after /b/ /d/ /g/ /l/ /s/ /ʒ/ but only slightly rounded after other consonants.
• /ɨ/ is usually a slightly rounded central vowel.
  • However, after /ç/ and /ɸ/, it is both rounded and fronted /ʏ/.
• Vowels after /m/ and /n/ are nasalized, and nasal /o/ and /u/ are merged to /õ/.

Development

Gohon develops new sounds by coalesce of phonemes. For example, -xan “deep, severe, fierce” interacted with words ending in [m] and gave rise to an allophone [mˁ]. As this contraction spreads to other words by analogy, the new allophone developed distinction and thus became a phoneme. Examples are numerous:

• ⟨mx⟩ and ⟨px⟩ as aforesaid.
• ⟨xu⟩ shortens to a labialized consonant when followed by a vowel. The most common form is ⟨xui⟩, from [χuɨ̯] to [χʷɨ].
• ⟨qu⟩ is also shortening into [qʷ] in words like biquo “bottle”, but too few words contain the cluster ⟨quo⟩ and it has not separated into a phoneme yet.
• -⟨xz⟩, originally [χɑʒ], has developed a different realization [ʰʒ̥] in word-final positions only. To effectively distinguish it from -⟨z⟩, an innovative labialization is applied, as [ʒ̥ʷ], or even whistled as something like [x͎ʒ̥] (by analogy of the whistled /ç/).
• ⟨tl⟩ is commonly realized as [l̥], similar to [ɬ] but without audible frication. It may be separating into a new phoneme, as evinced by patterns of elision like otlqu [ˈoɫ̥.qu] “doubtful”, which is distinct from olqu “big”.
• ⟨nl⟩, shortened from ⟨nle⟩, is pronounced /l̃/, a separate phoneme as evinced by minimal pairs such as -anl “group of people” and -dal “agent of action” and -an “not anymore”.

This process is the driving force behind much phonology development in Gohon. However this is not the case for all languages; the sound in English “would you” has no tendency of separating into a phoneme.

The lost tonality

Gohon was once tonal, but has shifted to a pitch-accent system over time. Currently, only a small number of words are differentiated by tone alone. For example, qs (low) “declarative sentence marker”, qos (high) “because”, qos (falling) “six”.

There were four tones: neutral, high, low, falling. Nowadays tones play a marginal role and the only prominent difference is falling vs. non-falling.

• High syllables are considered stressed. Low and falling syllables are considered unstressed. In monosyllabic words with low tone, the vowel is omitted in spelling, as in qs.
• The clitics are pronounced with an epenthetic vowel with low tone.
• A syllable starting with /g-/ always has a high tone.
• A syllable with [+rtr] sounds always has a low or falling tone.
• When two vowels occur next to each other, the first vowel has a low tone and the second has a high tone. The second vowel receives the stress.
• A word with a coda consonant is usually a falling tone. (In some cases, n marks the preceding vowel is a nasal vowel and is not counted as a consonant.)
  • A special example is -i and -ij: the former is [i{LOW}], while the latter is [i{FALL}] which is similar to [ij]. The suffix -ij is one of the plural markers meaning “cluster of, group of”.

Word stress also affects the realization of tone. In general, stressed falling tone syllables have a more dramatic contour than unstressed ones. Stressed high tone syllables are higher in pitch than unstressed ones. Stressed low tone syllables have no difference with their unstressed counterparts.

Because Gohon orthography doesn’t include a way to directly indicate tone, a small number of words are spelled the same but pronounced with different tones.

The silent j

Occasionally, ⟨j⟩ comes after a consonant, most notably in the suffix -itja “that which is meant to be done”, which is pronounced /ɪtʔa/ or /ɪʔa/. Here ⟨j⟩ only serves mark the separation of syllables, so the suffix wouldn’t be pronounced /ɪta/ which would mean “or”.

A different analysis transcribes -itja as /ɪtʼa/, with an ejective /tʼ/ that is distinct from /t/. Such an analysis would add /tʼ/, /kʼ/ and /qʼ/ to the phoneme inventory. Although this sounds appealing, I don’t think I pronounce -itja with a glottalic airstream as described in the books, so the phoneme charts will stay the way the are for now.

Subtle vowel shifts

• /i/, originally [ɪ] in all positions, has shifted to [ɨ] in word-final positions, in order to distinguish from the inversion particle i /ʔɪ/. This, in turn, causes potential confusion with the existing phoneme /ɨ/ [ɨ̹]. It is possible [ɪ] and [ɨ̹] will merge to [ɨ]. The current /ɨ/ triggers changes in many consonants before it as exemplified by /çɨ/ [çʏ] and /nɨ/ [ɲʏ], so its plausible to simply have these allophones separate into phonemes. (/i/ after /q/ or /x/ is not allowed as it triggers vowel harmony and changes /i/ to /u/.)
• /e/ has become more close before [-rtr] consonants, from /e̞/ to /e/. The diphthong /eɪ/ has moved back as well, sounding more like [ɘɨ̯]. In this state, merging [ɪ] with [ɨ̹] would create a vacancy in the vowel space, and if /e/ shifts to [ɪ] to fill the vacancy, it could trigger [drum roll] a Great Vowel Shift. I wouldn’t want that.

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)(C)V(C).

• Only a subset of consonants, namely /m b t k q ɸ s ʒ ç ʁ l/, are allowed in the coda of native words.
  • Note the absence of voiced plosives, except /b/ which is pronounced [β˕].
  • Voiced consonants in the coda are partly devoiced.
  • True consonant clusters (appearing in the onset and coda) in native words are /st/ and /cq/.
  • In addition, /bl/ /pl/ /ql/ /bʁ/ /pʁ/ /dʁ/ /tʁ/ are rare clusters in the onset that may or may not be pronounced with an epenthetic vowel.
  • Clusters with /l/ or /r/ tend to be vocalized instead, especially in the coda. (A lone /l/ or /r/ remains distinct.)

Writing System

a /a/	an /ã/	b /b/	c /ç/	d /d/	dz /dʒ/	e /e/, /ə/	en /ẽ/	f /ɸ/, /h/	g /g˗/	h ∅	i /ɪ/
in /ɪ̃/	j /j/	k /k/	l /l/	m /m/	mx /mˤ/	n /n/, /ə̃/	o /o/	on /õ/	p /p/	px /pˤ/	q /q/
r /ʁ/	s /s/	t /t/	tl /l̥/	ts /tʃ/	u /u/	un /õ/	w /w/	x /χ/	xu /χʷ/	y /ɨ/	z /ʒ/

• ⟨e⟩ is /e/ except in a few particles where it is /ə/.
• ⟨h⟩ is silent and only appears in a few native words. In English loanwords it is /h/ or /ç/.
• ⟨n⟩ is /n/ after a vowel, and /ə̃/ after a consonant.
  • ⟨.⟩ was once used to mark a syllable break between a consonant and ⟨n⟩. This usage has fallen out of favor and ⟨.⟩ is never used to spell words now.
• ⟨un⟩ and ⟨on⟩ have merged to /õ/.
• ⟨xu⟩ followed by a front vowel indicates /χʷ/.
• ⟨c⟩ represents /ç/, which is really confusing.

The script is largely phonetic with some exceptions:

• ⟨w⟩ between ⟨u⟩ and another vowel appears inconsistently. This is because Gohon used to contrast /ɰ/ and /w/, with only the latter spelled with ⟨w⟩. The contrast has since disappeared and most such words are now spelled without the superfluous ⟨w⟩.
• ⟨un⟩ and ⟨on⟩ represent the same sound. ⟨un⟩ is the more common form, but ⟨on⟩ exists in some affixes.
• Certain words of onomatopoeic origins have sounds not found in normal speech which are represented with approximate spellings.

Notes

Gohon words may appear unpronounceable to speakers of European languages. This is due to vowels omitted in writing and the syllabic n.

Inherent vowel & vowel reduction

Except /k/, each consonant is “paired with” a vowel where the resulting syllable is thought to be easiest to produce.

/m/ ‑ /ẽ/	/n/ ‑ /ə̃/	/p/ ‑ /e/	/b/ ‑ /u/	/t/ ‑ /e/	/d/ ‑ /e/	/q/ ‑ /o/	/g/ ‑ /e/
/ɸ/ ‑ /u/	/s/ ‑ /e/	/ʒ/ ‑ /e/	/ç/ ‑ /i/	/χ/ ‑ /a/	/l/ ‑ /e/	/ʁ/ ‑ /e/	/w/ ‑ /e/

A vowel is omitted when:

• It is not part of a diphthong.
• Its syllable is not stressed.
• It is the vowel “paired with” the consonant before it, as given in the above table.
• Preferably, it is in the first or the last syllable.

Omitting the vowel creates a syllable written with a single consonant which is said to be pronounced with its inherent vowel. Such a convention indicates reduced vowels without using diacritics, and also helps to mark stress. For example, the word “plank” is pronounced /mẽˈtos/ but is written mtos, for the first vowel satisfies all four criteria. As a counterexample, the word “sad” is pronounced /ˈmẽ.duɨ/ and is written medui, the first vowel is not omitted because the first syllable is stressed. From the spelling, we can tell mtos is stressed on the second syllable and medui is stressed on the first.

Syllabic n

The letter ⟨n⟩ poses a problem as it may represent /n/ or /ə̃/. In Gohon, ⟨n⟩ after a consonant is /ə̃/, even if followed by a vowel: wolna “garden” is /wo.ln̩.a/, not */wol.na/. Some exceptions exist. After ⟨s⟩, ⟨n⟩ usually represents the consonant: josne “rainfall” is /jos.ne/, however wasnu “difficult” is /wa.ʃn̩.u/. In words containing ⟨n⟩, a period was once used to indicate the syllable stop.

Capitalization

All native words that are not proper nouns are written in lowercase. Even sentences start in lowercase.

• Loanwords, especially nouns or those not conforming to the phonotactics, start with a capital letter. This can differentiate words: Cut /kʌt/ as in English “make the cut” vs. cut /çut/ “they are”.
• Names of places, people and organizations always retain their capitalization as in the source language.

Punctuation

Punctuation is similar to English but with periods replaced by semicolons, because the period (.) used to be part of the alphabet.

• The comma (,) separates two or more items in a parallel structure and splits up different parts of a sentence.
• The semicolon (;) is used to separate sentences.
• The exclamation mark and the question mark are used as in English.
  • Generally, the “exclamation threshold” is higher in Gohon than in English. The exclamation mark represents an exaggerated facial expression, usually accompanied with intense emotion. For example, to say “hello”, qumui is preferred over *qumui!, which can feel unnatural.
• The apostrophe (’) is used in clitics.
• The quotation marks („ and ”) are used for quoting conversation or to indicate unusual use of a word.
  • For quote-inside-a-quote, the inner quote is indicated with single quotes (‚ and ’), using comma and apostrophe where the characters are not supported.
  • Sarcasm or irony is usually not marked with quotation marks, and is instead rendered through changes in the pronunciation and spelling. For example, the stressed vowel is unnaturally lengthened, diphthongized, and given a rising-falling contour, where superfluous ⟨h⟩ are inserted after the stressed vowel or at the beginning of a word.