** Under early construction **
Kawepon / Kawembupon / Kawemalupon
Phonemic inventory[]
(with Latin orthography in parentheses)
===Consonants ===
|
Bilabial |
Alveolar |
Velar |
Nasal |
m |
n |
ŋ (h) |
Plosive |
p, mb (mb) |
t, nd (nd) |
k, ŋg (hg) |
Approximate |
w* |
l |
w* |
* w is a velar-bilabial
===Vowels === | ||||
Front |
Back | |||
High |
i |
u | ||
Mid-low |
ɛ (e) |
ɔ (o) | ||
Low |
ɑ (a) |
===Syllable structure ===
(C)V(R)
C: a consonant
V: a vowel
R: a consonant other than a stop; i.e. one of /m n ŋ l w/
===Allophony ===
- Nasals [m n ŋ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following stop or nasal.
- Semivowels [w] persistently become mid-low [ɔ̯] after a lax vowel.
- Prenasalised stops [mb nd ŋg] become non-prenasalised [b d g] after a stop.
- Non-back vowels [i ɛ] become central [ɨ ɜ] after a semivowel.
- Nasals [m n ŋ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to the previous phone between a stop or nasal and a stop or nasal.
- Semivowels [w ɔ̯] assimilate in laxity to a following vowel or approximant other than [l]. Before a lax vowel or semivowel, [w] become [ɔ̯].
- Semivowels [w o̯ ɔ̯] assimilate in laxity to a following vowel or approximant other than [l]. Before a lax vowel or semivowel, [w] become [ɔ̯].
- Unrounded non-bilabial consonants [n ŋg k ...] become rounded [nʷ ŋgʷ kʷ ...] before a rounded semivowel.
- Unrounded non-bilabial consonants [n ŋg k ...] persistently become rounded [nʷ ŋgʷ kʷ ...] before a rounded consonant.
- [ɔ̯] become [o̯] before a high vowel or semivowel.
- Stops [mb p dʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following stop.
- Stops [mp ŋk d ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding stop or nasal.
- Front vowels [i ɛ] become central [ɨ ɜ] before a back semivowel.
I. The Verb.
Paradigmatic contrasts:
- · Finite-Infinite (and participle)
- · Positive-Negative
- · Past-Nonpast
- · Perfect-Imperfect
- · Realis-Irrealis (i.e., indicative-subjunctive/optative/imperative/interrogative)
- · Formal-Informal-Familiar
Gender, grammatical person and number are not taken into account in the morphological paradigm.
Paradigm of Verbs.[]
Infinitive: nde “travel” |
Formal |
Informal |
Familiar | ||
Positive |
Non-Past |
Real |
ndemalu |
ndembu |
nda |
Unreal |
ndeumalu |
ndeumbu |
ndeu | ||
Past |
Real |
ndemalika |
ndembika |
ndaika | |
Unreal |
ndeumalika |
ndeumbika |
ndeuika | ||
Negative |
Non-Past |
Real |
ndehgwelu |
ndehgwei |
ndahge |
Unreal |
ndeuhgwelu |
ndeuhgwei |
ndeuhge | ||
Past |
Real |
ndehgwelika |
ndehgwika |
ndahgika | |
Unreal |
ndeuhgwelika |
ndeuhgwika |
ndeuhgika |
Derivational forms
(formal, informal and familiar non-past, positive, realis forms)
Verbal:
Deontic Modalities:
· “must” – it is necessary
we- wendemalu wendembu wenda
· “should”, “ought” – it is advantageous, recommended or expected
mbi- mbindemalu mbindembu mbinda
· “may” – it is permissible
lu- lundemalu lundembu lunda
· “want” – it is desirable (for the subject)
ka- kandemalu kandembu kanda
Epistemic Modalities:
· “evidently” – it appears to be the case
pete- petendemalu petendembu petenda
· “probably” – it is likely the case
kali- kalindemalu kalindembu kalinda
· “possibly” – it may be the case
hgiki- hgikindemalu hgikindembu hgikinda
Coordinative Modalities:
· simple coordinative
-ka demaluka dembuka ndaka
· “because”
ndi- -ka ndindemaluka ndindembuka ndindaka
· “while”, “during”
membe- -ka membendemaluka membendembuka membendaka
· “in order to”, “for”
tula- -ka tulandemaluka tulandembuka tulandaka
· “for” (someone)
wehita- -ka wehitandemaluka wehitandembuka wehitandaka
Nominal:
· person – one who does X
-ku ndemaluku ndembuku ndaku
· object – the thing which X is done to
-wele ndemaluwele ndembuwele ndawele
· instrument – the thing used to do X
-pon ndemalupon ndembupon ndapon
· time – the time at which X took place
mbe- -ndo mbendemalundo mbendembundo mbendando
· place – the place where X is done
mbe- -mbu mbendemalumbu mbendembumbu mbendambu
· purpose – the reason X was done
mbe- -kekaku mbendemalukekaku mbendembukekaku mbendakekaku
· abstraction – the act of X
-hgeu ndemaluhgeu ndembuhgeu ndahgeu
Adjectival:
· agency – the quality of something that does X
-keke ndemalukeke, etc.
· objectivity – the quality of something that X is done to
-tete ndemalutete, etc.
Some Verbs:
a to love
he to get, acquire
hgo to leave
kawe to speak
ka to help
ke to run
ki to make
ko to sleep
le to stand
lo to want, hope for, await
ma to arrive
me to swim
mbo to hunt
na to come
nde to travel, go
ndo to walk
o to hate
pe to forget
pi to dream
te to think
wa to happen, occur
we to kneel
II. The Noun.[]
Compared to the verb, nouns are very much unmarked. However, they do take clitics which refer to determination and case.
Paradigmatic Contrasts of Enclitics:[]
- · Proximal-mesioproximal-mesiodistal-distal
- · Nominative-Accusative-Dative-Genitive-Vocative
Paradigm of nominal enclitics []
|
Proximal |
M.-Proximal |
M.-Distal |
Distal |
Nom |
mb(a)- |
t(a)- |
l(e)- |
nd(e)- |
Acc |
lemb(a)- |
let(a)- |
lel(e)- |
lend(e)- |
Dat |
kemb(a)- |
ket(a)- |
kel(e)- |
kend(e)- |
Gen |
memb(e)- |
end(e)- | ||
Voc |
w(a)- |
Use of Gen and Dative.
Modifier (Gen/Dat) precedes modified (Nom/Acc/Voc):
ende.ndunda le.ndumemambe “that lagoon of the fish (i.e. which has fish)”
Dist-Gen.fish MDist-Nom.lagoon
membe.talmba mba.downihahgamika “the scripture of this village”
Prox-Gen.village Prox-Nom.scripture
Complex Noun Phrases[]
g/dREL – ko[]
G-REL – ne
D-REL – mbe
dREL and gREL are used to represent covert dative and genitive relatives. D-REL and G-REL are for overt dative and genitive relatives. The overt forms are used when further subordination happens within the relative clause.
kende.warunona ende.tem mba.ndunda
D.trail + G.man -> N.fish
D.trail G.man N.fish --> fish which are a. on trail, b. of man
ende.tem kende.warunona nda.ndunda
G.man + D.trail -> N.fish
G.man D.trail N.fish --> fish which are a. of man, b. on trail
kende.warunona ko ende.tem nda.ndunda
D.trail -> [G.man -> N.fish]
D.trail dREL G.man N.fish --> fish of man which are on the trail
ende.tem ko kende.warunona nda.ndunda
G.man -> [D.trail -> N.fish]
G.man gREL D.trail N.fish --> fish on the trail which are of man
kende.warunona mba.tem ne nda.ndunda
G[D.trail -> N.man] -> N.fish
D.trail N.man G-REL N.fish --> fish which are of { the man who is on the trail }
ende.tem mba.warunona ne nda.ndunda
D[G.man -> N.trail] -> N.fish
G.man N.trail D-REL N.fish --> fish which are on { the trail that is of the man }
kende.warunona mba.tem ne kend.eliwae nda.ndunda
G[D.trail N.man] -> D.reed N.fish
D.trail N.man G-REL D.reed N.fish
[fish in the reed] which are of { the man on the trail }
kende.warunona mba.tem ne mb.eliwae mbe nda.ndunda
D{ G[D.trail -> N.man] N.reed} -> N.fish
D.trail N.man G-REL N.reed D-REL N.fish
fish which are { in the reed which is [of the man on the trail] }
Some Nouns:[]
akinom mountain, hill
enda animal (usually mammals)
eton barley
eliwae reed
gambam fishing pole
hahgan syllabic characters
hahgamika writing
eliwaehgan reed scroll or book
downihahgamika scripture
lokawe estuary (connected by creeks or rivers to land)
ndamba father
ndembun fish bones
ndolinoin creek (feeds a larger river)
ndunda fish
ndumemambe lagoon (not fed by a river, except perhaps a few creeks in the
wet season)
tan member of another social group
talmba settlement
telwe bird
tem tribesman
tenak river that leads to a lake
tendipew river that leads only to the sea
warunona trail
wen ocean
wendewa fish-reservoir
wewa mother
Simple sentences
kendewendewa endetem ndendunda membu
D.fsh-rs G.man N.fish swim
This man’s fish (over there) swim (informal) in the fish-reservoir (over there)
===Pronouns. ===
|
|
|
Humble |
|
|
|
|
|
1st |
2nd |
3rd |
1st |
2nd |
3rd |
|
Nom |
no |
ndu |
ten |
mawe |
ndana |
pen |
|
Acc |
nole |
ndule |
tele |
mawele |
ndale |
pele |
|
Dat |
noke |
nduke |
tenge |
maweke |
ndange |
penge |
|
Gen |
nombe |
ndumbe |
tembe |
mawembe |
ndambe |
pembe |
|
Voc |
|
wandu |
waten |
wamawe |
wandana |
wapen |
|
possessive |
na |
nda |
ta |
mawa |
ndana |
pa |
|
Adjectives.[]
Adjectives precede nouns and do not take any declensional forms.
atipi tall
aka white
akandi light (opposite of dark)
eng big
hehe heavy
iki small
katondi green
mandu short (length)
manel bad
ndelu blue
nengu short (height)
ngengun wide
tapenga thin (outside dimension, as of a string)
tapika narrow (inside dimension, as of a ravine)
tenengin long
tewak black
tewangi dark
wakata good
wake light (opposite of heavy)
wanu red or orange
No. | English | |
---|---|---|
1 | I | — |
2 | you (singular) | — |
3 | he | — |
4 | we | — |
5 | you (plural) | — |
6 | they | — |
7 | this | — |
8 | that | — |
9 | here | — |
10 | there | — |
11 | who | — |
12 | what | — |
13 | where | — |
14 | when | — |
15 | how | — |
16 | not | — |
17 | all | — |
18 | many | — |
19 | some | — |
20 | few | — |
21 | other | — |
22 | one | — |
23 | two | — |
24 | three | — |
25 | four | — |
26 | five | — |
27 | big | — |
28 | long | — |
29 | wide | — |
30 | thick | — |
31 | heavy | — |
32 | small | — |
33 | short | — |
34 | narrow | — |
35 | thin | — |
36 | woman | — |
37 | man (adult male) | — |
38 | man (human being) | — |
39 | child | — |
40 | wife | — |
41 | husband | — |
42 | mother | — |
43 | father | — |
44 | animal | — |
45 | fish | — |
46 | bird | — |
47 | dog | — |
48 | louse | — |
49 | snake | — |
50 | worm | — |
51 | tree | — |
52 | forest | — |
53 | stick | — |
54 | fruit | — |
55 | seed | — |
56 | leaf | — |
57 | root | — |
58 | bark | — |
59 | flower | — |
60 | grass | — |
61 | rope | — |
62 | skin | — |
63 | meat | — |
64 | blood | — |
65 | bone | — |
66 | fat | — |
67 | egg | — |
68 | horn | — |
69 | tail | — |
70 | feather | — |
71 | hair | — |
72 | head | — |
73 | ear | — |
74 | eye | — |
75 | nose | — |
76 | mouth | — |
77 | tooth | — |
78 | tongue | — |
79 | fingernail | — |
80 | foot | — |
81 | leg | — |
82 | knee | — |
83 | hand | — |
84 | wing | — |
85 | belly | — |
86 | guts | — |
87 | neck | — |
88 | back | — |
89 | breast | — |
90 | heart | — |
91 | liver | — |
92 | drink | — |
93 | eat | — |
94 | bite | — |
95 | suck | — |
96 | spit | — |
97 | vomit | — |
98 | blow | — |
99 | breathe | — |
100 | laugh | — |
101 | see | — |
102 | hear | — |
103 | know | — |
104 | think | te |
105 | smell | — |
106 | fear | — |
107 | sleep | ko |
108 | live | — |
109 | die | — |
110 | kill | — |
111 | fight | — |
112 | hunt | mbo |
113 | hit | — |
114 | cut | — |
115 | split | — |
116 | stab | — |
117 | scratch | — |
118 | dig | — |
119 | swim | me |
120 | fly | — |
121 | walk | ndo |
122 | come | na |
123 | lie | — |
124 | sit | — |
125 | stand | le |
126 | turn | — |
127 | fall | — |
128 | give | — |
129 | hold | — |
130 | squeeze | — |
131 | rub | — |
132 | wash | — |
133 | wipe | — |
134 | pull | — |
135 | push | — |
136 | throw | — |
137 | tie | — |
138 | sew | — |
139 | count | — |
140 | say | — |
141 | sing | — |
142 | play | — |
143 | float | — |
144 | flow | — |
145 | freeze | — |
146 | swell | — |
147 | sun | — |
148 | moon | — |
149 | star | — |
150 | water | — |
151 | rain | — |
152 | river | tenak, tendipew |
153 | lake | teowe |
154 | sea | wen |
155 | salt | — |
156 | stone | — |
157 | sand | — |
158 | dust | — |
159 | earth | — |
160 | cloud | — |
161 | fog | — |
162 | sky | — |
163 | wind | — |
164 | snow | — |
165 | ice | — |
166 | smoke | — |
167 | fire | — |
168 | ash | — |
169 | burn | — |
170 | road | — |
171 | mountain | — |
172 | red | — |
173 | green | — |
174 | yellow | — |
175 | white | — |
176 | black | — |
177 | night | — |
178 | day | — |
179 | year | — |
180 | warm | — |
181 | cold | — |
182 | full | — |
183 | new | — |
184 | old | — |
185 | good | — |
186 | bad | — |
187 | rotten | — |
188 | dirty | — |
189 | straight | — |
190 | round | — |
191 | sharp | — |
192 | dull | — |
193 | smooth | — |
194 | wet | — |
195 | dry | — |
196 | correct | — |
197 | near | — |
198 | far | — |
199 | right | — |
200 | left | — |
201 | at | — |
202 | in | — |
203 | with | — |
204 | and | — |
205 | if | — |
206 | because | — |
207 | name | — |