Line 2,703: | Line 2,703: | ||
|nativename = kihāmatī́zô tárak |
|nativename = kihāmatī́zô tárak |
||
|language = Kihā́mmic |
|language = Kihā́mmic |
||
− | |I = ékô |
+ | |I = ékô |
− | |you (singular) = dán |
+ | |you (singular) = dán |
|he = šốn |
|he = šốn |
||
− | |we = əkámô |
+ | |we = əkámô |
− | |you (plural) = tanám |
+ | |you (plural) = tanám |
− | |they = žônám |
+ | |they = žônám |
|this = étômô |
|this = étômô |
||
|that = étôvan |
|that = étôvan |
||
Line 2,786: | Line 2,786: | ||
|knee = épon |
|knee = épon |
||
|hand = mánt |
|hand = mánt |
||
− | |wing = |
+ | |wing = vólt |
|belly = dū́m |
|belly = dū́m |
||
|guts = okrənám |
|guts = okrənám |
||
Line 2,863: | Line 2,863: | ||
|name = tīdá |
|name = tīdá |
||
|see = bedóš |
|see = bedóš |
||
− | |know = snarát |
+ | |know = snarát |
|think = pridumstáþ |
|think = pridumstáþ |
||
− | |live = vežáþ |
+ | |live = vežáþ |
|kill = akáfad |
|kill = akáfad |
||
|say = zakráþ |
|say = zakráþ |
Revision as of 22:35, 1 April 2012
Name: Kihā́mmic
Type: Fusional Alignment: Nominative-accusative Head Direction: Final (occasionally initial) Number of genders: 3 Declensions: Yes Conjugations: Yes
|
Kihā́mmic kihāmatī́zô tárak | |
---|---|
Spoken in: | Kihāmát |
Region: | North America |
Total speakers: | 5,283,084 (native) |
Ranking: | 121 |
Genetic classification: | Panlaffic languages |
Official status | |
Official language in: | Kihāmát |
Regulated by: | The Kihā́mmic Institute of Language and Linguistics |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | kh |
ISO 639-2 | kih |
SIL | kih |
See also: Language – Lists of languages |
pá mamûnám ontā́ bán : non nobis solum : not for ourselves alone
General information
The Kihā́mmic language (Kihā́mmic Latin: Lố kihāmatī́zô tárak, [ˈlo kɪɦɑːmaˈtiːzo ˈtaɾak]) is the main language spoken in Kihāmát. It is an inflected fusional nominative-accusative language, which has two numbers, three genders and nine cases. There are over five million native speakers of Kihā́mmic at present; nearly seventy per cent of the country's population, the majority of the remaining thirty per cent speak Kihā́mmic fluently as their second language. The language belongs to the isolated Panlaffic language family, which is indigenous to the eight islands that make up Kihāmát. There are six other extant Panlaffic languages, including the closely related Church Kihā́mmic.
Phonology and orthography
- See also: Kihā́mmic phonology and IPA for Kihā́mmic.
The Kihā́mmic language can be written in either the native Panlaffic script, in which all Panlaffic languages are traditionally written, or in the Standardised Romanised Panlaffic Alphabet used below.
Consonants
Grapheme | IPA | Description | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|
P | p | [p] | voiceless bilabial plosive | - |
L | l | [l], [ɫ] | alveolar lateral approximant, velarised alveolar lateral approximant | [l] becomes [ɫ] before another consonant |
M | m | [m], [ɱ] | bilabial nasal, labiodental nasal | [m] becomes [ɱ] before f and v |
N | n | [n], [ŋ] | alveolar nasal, velar nasal | [n] becomes [ŋ] before g and k |
D | d | [d] | voiced alveolar plosive | - |
H | h | [h], [ɦ] | voiceless glottal fricative, voiced glottal fricative | [h] becomes [ɦ] before y, after k and between two vowels |
K | k | [k] | voiceless velar plosive | - |
R | r | [ɾ], [ɹ] | alveolar tap, alveolar approximant | [ɾ] becomes [ɹ] at the start of a word |
B | b | [b] | voiced bilabial plosive | - |
Þ | þ | [θ], [ð] | voiceless dental fricative, voiced dental fricative | - |
V | v | [v] | voiced labiodental fricative | - |
Z | z | [z] | voiced alveolar fricative | - |
Ž | ž | [ʒ] | voiced palato-alveolar fricative | - |
F | f | [f] | voiceless labiodental fricative | - |
G | g | [g] | voiced velar plosive | - |
S | S | [s] | voiceless alveolar fricative | - |
Š | š | [ʃ] | voiceless palato-alveolar fricative | - |
Č | č | [t͡ʃ] | voiceless palato-alveolar affricate | - |
T | t | [t] | voiceless alveolar plosive | - |
Y | y | [j] | palatal approximant | - |
Vowels
Grapheme | IPA | Description | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|
A | a | [a] | open front unrounded vowel | - |
Ā | ā | [ɑː] | long open back unrounded vowel | - |
E | e | [ɛ], [e] | open-mid front unrounded vowel, close-mid front unrounded vowel | [ɛ] becomes [e] at the end of a word for most speakers |
O | o | [ɒ] | open back rounded vowel | - |
Ô | ô | [o] | close-mid back rounded vowel | - |
Ō | ō | [ɔː], [ɔ] | long open-mid back rounded vowel, open-mid back rounded vowel, | - |
I | i | [ɪ], [i] | near-close near-front unrounded vowel, close front unrounded vowel | i only very rarely stands for [i] |
Ī | ī | [iː] | long close front unrounded vowel | - |
Ə | ǝ | [ǝ], [ɜ] | mid-central vowel, open-mid central unrounded vowel | [ǝ] becomes [ɜ] when stressed for most speakers |
U | U | [ʊ] | near-close near-back vowel | - |
Û | û | [u], [uː] | close back rounded vowel, long close back rounded vowel | [u] sometimes becomes lengthened when stressed |
Ū | ū | [uː] | long close back rounded vowel | - |
Digraphs and trigraphs
Most of the consonant clusters and diphthongs are self-evident, however, the less obvious of these are shown below:
Grapheme | IPA | Description | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|
DZ | dz | [d͡z] | voiced alveolar affricate | - |
DŽ | dž | [d͡ʒ] | voiced palato-alveolar affricate | - |
DS | ds | [d͡z] | voiced alveolar affricate | - |
KG | kg | [kː] | geminated voiceless velar plosive | - |
KGH | kgh | [ç] | voiceless palatal fricative | - |
GK | gk | [gː] | geminated voiced velar plosive | - |
GKH | gkh | [ç] | voiceless palatal fricative | - |
ÚI | úi | [wi] | voiced labio-velar approximant, close front unrounded vowel | - |
TZ | tz | [t͡s] | voiceless alveolar affricate | - |
TS | ts | [t͡s] | voiceless alveolar affricate | - |
Alphabet
As previously mentioned, all of the Panlaffic languages have traditionally been written in the Panlaffic alphabet, the chief variant of which is the Kihā́mmic one. However, use of the Romanised alphabet is gaining use, mainly due to the Internet.
Panlaffic alphabet
The Panlaffic alphabet is a true alphabet. An example of its use is on the Coat of Arms of Kihāmát, as shown to the left. The word on the scroll spells "Kihāmát" in its native script.
Although the Panlaffic script in the past had two cases, a majuscule and a minuscule, only the majuscule is now generally used and the minuscule is never used in any official context.
Romanised alphabet
P | L | A | Ā | M | N | E | D | H | K | O | Ô | Ō | R | B | Þ | I | Ī | V | Ə | Z | Ž | F | G | S | Š | Č | U | Û | Ū | T | Y |
p | l | a | ā | m | n | e | d | h | k | o | ô | ō | r | b | þ | i | ī | v | ə | z | ž | f | g | s | š | č | u | û | ū | t | y |
Nota bene
- Acute accents over vowels indicate primary stress.
- A is always stressed if it the last letter of a word.
- Ə is never stressed unless it is the only vowel in the word.
- Pluralisation moves the stress to the infix, -am-, unless this would violate rule two.
Basic grammar
The table below gives a basic idea of the structure of Kihā́mmic grammar.
Gender | Cases | Numbers | Tenses | Persons | Moods | Voices | Aspects | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Verb | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No |
Nouns | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Adjectives | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Numbers | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Participles | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No |
Adverb | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Pronouns | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No |
Adpositions | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Article | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Particle | No | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Cases
The Kihā́mmic language has nine cases:
- Nominative
- Accusative
- Genitive
- Ablative
- Allative (or dative-allative)
- Instrumental
- Prepositional
- Terminative
- Comparative (or equative)
Nouns
Nouns have three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter; two numbers: singular and plural; they are also declined according to case.
Masculine
Translation→ | building | moon, Moon | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case ↓ | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||
Nominative | hót | hotám | ốnô | ônámô | ||||
Accusative | hótā | hotámā | ốnā | ônámā | ||||
Genitive | hótī | hotámī | ốnī | ônámī | ||||
Ablative | hotá | hotamá | ôná | ônamá | ||||
Allative | hótô | hotámô | ốnō | ônámō | ||||
Instrumental | hótû | hotámû | ốnû | ônámû | ||||
Prepositional | hóte | hotáme | ốne | ônáme | ||||
Terminative | hótə | hotámə | ốnə | ônámə | ||||
Comparative | hótak | hotámak | ốnak | ônámak |
Feminine
Translation→ | star, Sun | wind | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case ↓ | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||
Nominative | kāžá | kāžamá | fáve | faváme | ||||
Accusative | kāžér | kāžámer | fáver | favámer | ||||
Genitive | kāžī́ | kāžámī | fávī | favámī | ||||
Ablative | kāžā́ | kāžamā́ | favá | favamá | ||||
Allative | kāžố | kāžámô | fávô | favámô | ||||
Instrumental | kāžû́ | kāžámû | fávû | favámû | ||||
Prepositional | kāžé | kāžáme | fávet | favámet | ||||
Terminative | kā́žə | kāžámə | fávə | favámə | ||||
Comparative | kāžák | kāžámak | fávak | favámak |
Neuter
Translation→ | eye | bone | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case ↓ | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||
Nominative | čû́ | čámû | tákī | takámī | ||||
Accusative | čû́ | čámû | tákī | takámī | ||||
Genitive | čī́ | čámī | tákīn | takámīn | ||||
Ablative | čá | čamá | taká | takamá | ||||
Allative | čố | čámô | tákô | takámô | ||||
Instrumental | čū́ | čámū | tákû | takámû | ||||
Prepositional | čé | čáme | táke | takáme | ||||
Terminative | čə́ | čámə | tákə | takámə | ||||
Comparative | čák | čámak | tákak | takámak |
Diminutives and augmentatives
Diminutives add -ûn(á/û) unless the word ends in a vowel, in which case add -kûn(á/û).
Augmentatives add -at(á/û) but add -mat(á/û) when the word ends in a vowel.
Adjectives do not change according to diminutives or augmentatives.
Articles
Articles appear as both definite (i.e. "the") and indefinite (i.e. "a", "an" or "some") and are declined as nouns.
Definite
The definite articles correspond to the English "the" and the French "le", "la", "l'" or "les".
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case ↓ | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||||
Nominative | lố | lámô | lá | lamá | lû́ | lámû | ||||||
Accusative | lā́ | lámā | lér | lámer | lû́ | lámû | ||||||
Genitive | lī́ | lámī | lī́ | lámī | lī́ | lámī | ||||||
Ablative | lá | lamá | lā́ | lámā | lá | lamá | ||||||
Allative | lṓ | lámō | lố | lámô | lố | lámô | ||||||
Instrumental | lû́ | lámû | lû́ | lámû | lū́ | lámū | ||||||
Prepositional | lé | láme | lé | láme | lé | láme | ||||||
Terminative | lə́ | lámə | lə́ | lámə | lə́ | lámə | ||||||
Comparative | lák | lámak | lák | lámak | lák | lámak |
Indefinite
The indefinite articles correspond to the English "a", "an" or "some" and the Portuguese "um", uma", "uns" or "umas". Note that indefinite pronouns drop the vowel in the pluralisation infix used elsewhere.
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case ↓ | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||||
Nominative | án | anám | aná | anmá | ánû | ánmû | ||||||
Accusative | ánā | ánmā | áner | ánmer | ánû | ánmû | ||||||
Genitive | ánī | ánmī | ánī | ánmī | ánī | ánmī | ||||||
Ablative | aná | ánmá | ánā | ánmā | aná | anmá | ||||||
Allative | ánô | ánmō | ánô | ánmô | ánô | ánmô | ||||||
Instrumental | ánû | ánmû | ánû | ánmû | ánū | ánmū | ||||||
Prepositional | áne | ánme | áne | ánme | áne | ánme | ||||||
Terminative | ánə | ánmə | ánə | ánmə | ánə | ánmə | ||||||
Comparative | ának | ánmak | ának | ánmak | ának | ánmak |
Adjectives
In Kihā́mmic, an adjectives agrees with the noun it qualifies in gender, number and case.
Type I
Type I adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -nômô. Note that the pluralisation infix -am- becomes -a- in all cases here due to the presence of n.
Translation→ | red | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | vílnômô | vilnamá | vílnûmû | |||
Accusative | vílnômā | vílnamā | vílnûmû | |||
Genitive | vílnômī | vílnamī | vílnûmī | |||
Ablative | vilnômá | vílnamā | vilnûmá | |||
Allative | vílnômō | vílnamô | vílnûmô | |||
Instrumental | vílnômû | vílnamû | vílnûmū | |||
Prepositional | vílnôme | vílname | vílnûme | |||
Terminative | vílnômə | vílnamə | vílnûmə | |||
Comparative | vílnômak | vílnamak | vílnûmak | |||
Plural | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | vilánômô | vilanamá | vilánûmû | |||
Accusative | vilánômā | vilánamā | vilánûmû | |||
Genitive | vilánômī | vilánamī | vilánûmī | |||
Ablative | vilanômá | vilánamā | vilanûmá | |||
Allative | vilánômō | vilánamô | vilánûmô | |||
Instrumental | vilánômû | vilánamû | vilánûmū | |||
Prepositional | vilánôme | viláname | vilánûme | |||
Terminative | vilánômə | vilánamə | vilánûmə | |||
Comparative | vilánômak | vilánamak | vilánûmak |
Type II
Type II adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -ôvan.
Translation→ | high | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | látkôvan | latkavá | látkûvû | |||
Accusative | látkôvanā | látkavā | látkûvû | |||
Genitive | látkôvanī | látkavī | látkûvī | |||
Ablative | latkôvaná | látkavā | látkûvá | |||
Allative | látkôvanō | látkavô | látkûvô | |||
Instrumental | látkôvanû | látkavû | látkûvū | |||
Prepositional | látkôvane | látkave | látkûve | |||
Terminative | látkôvanə | látkavə | látkûvə | |||
Comparative | látkôvanak | látkavak | látkûvak | |||
Plural | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | latkámôvan | latkamavá | latkámûvû | |||
Accusative | latkámôvanā | latkámavā | latkámûvû | |||
Genitive | latkámôvanī | latkámavī | latkámûvī | |||
Ablative | latkamôvaná | latkámavā | latkámûvá | |||
Allative | latkámôvanō | latkámavô | latkámûvô | |||
Instrumental | latkámôvanû | latkámavû | latkámûvū | |||
Prepositional | latkámôvane | latkámave | latkámûve | |||
Terminative | latkámôvanə | latkámavə | latkámûvə | |||
Comparative | latkámôvanak | latkámavak | latkámûvak |
Type III
Type III adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -amô or -ômô (but not -nômô). Note that here rather than the usual infix -am- the vowels a and ô mutate to become ā and ō respectively, these infixes are stressed unless the last letter is a.
Translation→ | distant | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | tṓrnamô | tōrnamá | tṓrnamû | |||
Accusative | tṓrnamā | tṓrnamā | tṓrnamû | |||
Genitive | tṓrnamī | tṓrnamī | tṓrnamī | |||
Ablative | tōrnamá | tṓrnamā | tōrnamá | |||
Allative | tṓrnamō | tṓrnamô | tṓrnamô | |||
Instrumental | tṓrnamû | tṓrnamû | tṓrnamū | |||
Prepositional | tṓrname | tṓrname | tṓrname | |||
Terminative | tṓrnamə | tṓrnamə | tṓrnamə | |||
Comparative | tṓrnamak | tṓrnamak | tṓrnamak | |||
Plural | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | tōrnā́mô | tōrnāmá | tōrnā́mû | |||
Accusative | tōrnā́mā | tōrnā́mā | tōrnā́mû | |||
Genitive | tōrnā́mī | tōrnā́mī | tōrnā́mī | |||
Ablative | tōrnāmá | tōrnā́mā | tōrnāmá | |||
Allative | tōrnā́mō | tōrnā́mô | tōrnā́mô | |||
Instrumental | tōrnā́mû | tōrnā́mû | tōrnā́mū | |||
Prepositional | tōrnā́me | tōrnā́me | tōrnā́me | |||
Terminative | tōrnā́mə | tōrnā́mə | tōrnā́mə | |||
Comparative | tōrnā́mak | tōrnā́mak | tōrnā́mak |
Type IV
Type IV adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -atī́zô.
Translation→ | Kihā́mmic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | kihāmatī́zô | kihāmatī́ze | kihāmatī́zī | |||
Accusative | kihāmatī́zā | kihāmatī́zā | kihāmatī́zī | |||
Genitive | kihāmatī́zī | kihāmatī́zī | kihāmatī́zīn | |||
Ablative | kihāmatīzá | kihāmatī́zā | kihāmatīzá | |||
Allative | kihāmatī́zō | kihāmatī́zô | kihāmatī́zô | |||
Instrumental | kihāmatī́zû | kihāmatī́zû | kihāmatī́zû | |||
Prepositional | kihāmatī́ze | kihāmatī́zet | kihāmatī́ze | |||
Terminative | kihāmatī́zə | kihāmatī́zə | kihāmatī́zə | |||
Comparative | kihāmatī́zak | kihāmatī́zak | kihāmatī́zak | |||
Plural | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | kihāmámatīzô | kihāmámatīze | kihāmámatīzī | |||
Accusative | kihāmámatīzā | kihāmámatīzā | kihāmámatīzī | |||
Genitive | kihāmámatīzī | kihāmámatīzī | kihāmámatīzīn | |||
Ablative | kihāmamatīzá | kihāmámatīzā | kihāmamatīzá | |||
Allative | kihāmámatīzō | kihāmámatīzô | kihāmámatīzô | |||
Instrumental | kihāmámatīzû | kihāmámatīzû | kihāmámatīzû | |||
Prepositional | kihāmámatīze | kihāmámatīzet | kihāmámatīze | |||
Terminative | kihāmámatīzə | kihāmámatīzə | kihāmámatīzə | |||
Comparative | kihāmámatīzak | kihāmámatīzak | kihāmatīzak |
Type V
Type V adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -ónsô.
Translation→ | church | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | āčónsô | āčónse | āčónsī | |||
Accusative | āčónsā | āčónsā | āčónsī | |||
Genitive | āčónsī | āčónsī | āčónsīn | |||
Ablative | āčonsá | āčónsā | āčonsá | |||
Allative | āčónsō | āčónsô | āčónsô | |||
Instrumental | āčónsû | āčónsû | āčónsû | |||
Prepositional | āčónse | āčónset | āčónse | |||
Terminative | āčónsə | āčónsə | āčónsə | |||
Comparative | āčónsak | āčónsak | āčónsak | |||
Plural | ||||||
Case ↓ | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
Nominative | āčámonsô | āčámonse | āčámonsī | |||
Accusative | āčámonsā | āčámonsā | āčámonsī | |||
Genitive | āčámonsī | āčámonsī | āčámonsīn | |||
Ablative | āčamonsá | āčámonsā | āčamonsá | |||
Allative | āčámonsō | āčámonsô | āčámonsô | |||
Instrumental | āčámonsû | āčámonsû | āčámonsû | |||
Prepositional | āčámonse | āčámonset | āčámonse | |||
Terminative | āčámonsə | āčámonsə | āčámonsə | |||
Comparative | āčámonsak | āčámonsak | āčámonsak |
Comparatives
More
To say phrases involving comparisons such as "The dog is bigger than the cat", the word "rū́namô" [more] precedes the adjective and the adjective is followed by "kā́" [than]. So the example sentence translates as:
"Lố gốt sói rū́namô ránômô kā́ lá kará"
N.B.: rū́namô declines appropriately as a type III adjective.
Less
To say phrases such as "The cat is smaller than the dog", the word "kónsô" [less] precedes the adjective which is also followed by "kā́". So the example given translates as:
"Lá kará séi kónse ránama kā́ lố gốt"
N.B.: kónsô declines as a type V adjective.
As... as
To say phrases such as "You are as short as me", the word "kán" [also] precedes the adjective which is also followed by "kā́". So the example given translates as:
"Dán sói kán dénômô kā́ ékô"
Superlatives
Most
To use superlatives, for example, "This dog is the biggest, the word "ródamô" [most] is placed before the adjective. Thus the sentence above translates as:
"Lố gốt sói lố ródamô ránômô"
N.B.: ródamô also declines as a type III adjective.
Least
To say superlative phrases such as "The cat is the smallest, the word "katrónsô" [least] is placed before the appropriate adjective. So the sentence above translates as:
"Lá kará séi lá katrónse ranômá"
N.B.: katrónsô declines as a type V adjective.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are declined just as noun, except for the fact that plural personal pronouns do not exactly resemble the pluralised version of the corresponding singular personal pronouns. The plural forms of the second and third person personal pronouns can be used as polite personal pronouns as well, just as in French "vous" can be the plural or polite form of "you" and as "Вы" can also do the same in Russian.
Masculine
Singular
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | ékô (I) | dán (you) | šốn (he, it) |
accusative | ekôá | daná | šôná |
genitive | ékī | dánī | šốnī |
ablative | eká | daná | šôná |
allative | ékô | dánô | šốnô |
instrumental | ékû | dánû | šốnû |
prepositional | éke | dáne | šốne |
terminative | ékə | dánə | šốnə |
comparative | ékak | dának | šốnak |
Plural
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | əkámô (we) | tanám (you) | žônám (they) |
accusative | əkamôá | tanamá | žônamá |
genitive | əkámī | tanámī | žônámī |
ablative | əkamá | tanamá | žônamá |
allative | əkámô | tanámô | žônámô |
instrumental | əkámû | tanámû | žônámû |
prepositional | əkáme | tanáme | žônáme |
terminative | əkámə | tanámə | žônámə |
comparative | əkámak | tanámak | žônámak |
Feminine
Singular
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | ā́ke (I) | līmá (you) | gāná (she, it) |
accusative | ākeá | līmaá | gānaá |
genitive | ā́kī | lī́mī | gā́nī |
ablative | āká | līmá | gāná |
allative | ā́kô | lī́mô | gā́nô |
instrumental | ā́kû | lī́mû | gā́nû |
prepositional | ā́ke | lī́me | gā́ne |
terminative | ā́kə | lī́mə | gā́nə |
comparative | ā́kak | lī́mak | gā́nak |
Plural
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | akáme (we) | zīnamá (you) | kānamá (they) |
accusative | akámeá | zīnamaá | kānamaá |
genitive | akámī | zīnámī | kānámī |
ablative | akamá | zīnamá | kānamá |
allative | akámô | zīnámô | kānámô |
instrumental | akámû | zīnámû | kānámû |
prepositional | akáme | zīnáme | kānáme |
terminative | akámə | zīnámə | kānámə |
comparative | əkámak | tanámak | žônámak |
Neuter
Singular
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | - | bû́ (you) | ītī́ (it) |
accusative | - | bûá | ītīá |
genitive | - | bī́ | ītī́ |
ablative | - | bá | ītá |
allative | - | bố | ītố |
instrumental | - | bû́ | ītû́ |
prepositional | - | bé | īté |
terminative | - | bə́ | ī́tə |
comparative | - | bák | īták |
Plural
first person | second person | third person | |
nominative | mámû (we) | vámû (you) | ītámī (they) |
accusative | mamûá | vamûá | ītamīá |
genitive | mámī | vámī | ītámī |
ablative | mamá | vamá | ītamá |
allative | mámô | vámô | ītámô |
instrumental | mámû | vámû | ītámû |
prepositional | máme | váme | ītáme |
terminative | mámə | vámə | ītámə |
comparative | mámak | vámak | ītámak |
The neuter second person singular is used in cases where either gender may apply and plural neuter pronouns are also used for mixed gender groups.
Reflexive
To form reflexive pronouns (i.e. myself/ourselves et cetera) the suffix -ná is added to singular pronouns and -nám added to plural pronouns. For example myself, masculine accusative, in Kihā́mmic is ekôná and ourselves, neuter instrumental, is mamûnám.
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are words such as the French "mon", "ton" or "son", they behave exactly as normal type I adjectives. They agree in case, number and gender with the noun.
Singular | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender ↓ | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
Masculine | énômô | dánômô | šốnômô | |||
Feminine | ā́nômô | lī́nômô | gā́nômô | |||
Neuter | - | bnốmô | ī́tnômô | |||
Plural | ||||||
Gender ↓ | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
Masculine | ənốmô | tánômô | žốnômô | |||
Feminine | ánômô | zī́nômô | kā́nômô | |||
Neuter | mnốmô | vnốmô | ī́tnômô |
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are words such as the English "mine", "yours" or "ours", they behave just as normal nouns would. They also agree in number and gender with the noun to which they refer (by adding "á" for feminine and "û" for neuter).
Singular | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender ↓ | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
Masculine | énôm | dánôm | šốnôm | |||
Feminine | ā́nam | lī́nam | gā́nam | |||
Neuter | - | bnû́m | ī́tnûm | |||
Plural | ||||||
Gender ↓ | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
Masculine | ənốm | tánôm | žốnôm | |||
Feminine | ánam | zī́nam | kā́nam | |||
Neuter | mnû́m | vnû́m | ī́tnû́m |
Interrogative pronouns
"Who"
The interrogative pronoun "kémû" [who] declines as below:
singular | plural | |
nominative | kémû | kemámû |
accusative | kemûá | kemamûá |
genitive | kémī | kemámī |
ablative | kemá | kemamá |
allative | kémô | kemámô |
instrumental | kémû | kemámû |
prepositional | kéme | kemáme |
terminative | kémə | kemámə |
comparative | kémak | kemámak |
"What"
The interrogative pronoun "kómû" [what] declines as below:
singular | plural | |
nominative | kómû | komámû |
accusative | komûá | komamûá |
genitive | kómī | komámī |
ablative | komá | komamá |
allative | kómô | komámô |
instrumental | kómû | komámû |
prepositional | kóme | komáme |
terminative | kómə | komámə |
comparative | kómak | komámak |
"Which kind"
The interrogative pronoun "tómû" [which kind] declines as below:
singular | plural | |
nominative | tómû | tomámû |
accusative | tomûá | tomamûá |
genitive | tómī | tomámī |
ablative | tomá | tomamá |
allative | tómô | tomámô |
instrumental | tómû | tomámû |
prepositional | tóme | tomáme |
terminative | tómə | tomámə |
comparative | tómak | tomámak |
"Which"
The interrogative pronoun "kétômô" [which] declines as a normal type III adjective.
"Whose"
The interrogative pronoun "kénôm" [whose] declines just as a normal noun and agrees in number and gender with the object to which it refers (by adding "á" for feminine and "û" for neuter).
"How many"
The interrogative pronoun "fáztamô" [how many] also declines as a normal type III adjective.
Demonstrative pronouns
"This", "these"
The demonstrative pronoun "étômô" [this] declines as usual type III adjective. Étômô agrees in number, gender and case with the noun to which it refers.
"That", "those"
The demonstrative pronoun "étôvan" [that] declines as a type II adjective. Étôvan also agrees in number, gender and case with the noun to which it refers.
"Such"
The demonstrative pronoun "étnômô" [such, suchlike, such as] declines as a normal type I adjective. Étnômô agrees in number, gender and case with the noun to which it refers.
Verbs
Verbs are conjugated according to tense, number, gender and mood. There are three moods; indicative, conditional and imperative, unlike English or French there is no subjunctive mood.
First conjugation, -áþ
First conjugation verbs have the ending -áþ in the infinitive. For example garanáþ [to play] is conjugated as follows:
Conjugation of garanáþ (to play) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Participles | Present | garanámô | Past | garanázamô |
Singular | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | garanói | garanéi | garanúi | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | garanáz | garanazā́ | garanazū́ | |
Perfect | agaranáz | agaranazā́ | agaranazū́ | |
Pluperfect | aiyagaranáz | aiyagaranazā́ | aiyagaranazū́ | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | garantóp | garantopā́ | garantopū́ | |
Perfect | agarantóp | agarantopā́ | agarantopū́ | |
Conditional | Present | bangaranói | bangaranéi | bangaranúi |
Past | banagaranáz | banagaranazā́ | banagaranazū́ | |
Imperative | garanaþố | garanaþá | garanaþû́ | |
Plural | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | garanóim | garanéim | garanúim | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | garanázm | garanazā́m | garanazū́m | |
Perfect | argaranázm | argaranazā́m | argaranazū́m | |
Pluperfect | aiyargaranázm | aiyargaranazā́m | aiyargaranazū́m | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | garantópm | garantopā́m | garantopū́m | |
Perfect | argarantópm | argarantopā́m | argarantopū́m | |
Conditional | Present | bangaranóim | bangaranéim | bangaranúim |
Past | banargaranázm | banargaranazā́m | banargaranazū́m | |
Imperative | garanaþmố | garanaþmá | garanaþmû́ |
Second conjugation, -ū́t
Second conjugation verbs have the ending -ū́t in the infinitive. For example kasū́t [to drink] is conjugated as follows:
Conjugation of kasū́t (to drink) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Participles | Present | kasámô | Past | kasû́samô |
Singular | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | kasû́n | kasûnā́ | kasûnī́ | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | kasû́s | kasûsā́ | kasûsū́ | |
Perfect | akasû́s | akasûsā́ | akasûsū́ | |
Pluperfect | aiyakasû́s | aiyakasûsā́ | aiyakasûsū́ | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | kasrót | kasrotā́ | kasrotū́ | |
Perfect | akasrót | akasrotā́ | akasrotū́ | |
Conditional | Present | bankasû́n | bankasûnā́ | bankasûnī́ |
Past | banakasû́s | banakasûsā́ | banakasûsū́ | |
Imperative | kasūtố | kasūtá | kasūtû́ | |
Plural | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | kasû́nm | kasûnā́n | kasûnī́n | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | kasû́sn | kasûsā́n | kasûsū́n | |
Perfect | arkasû́sn | arkasûsā́n | arkasûsū́n | |
Pluperfect | aiyarkasû́sn | aiyarkasûsā́n | aiyarkasûsū́n | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | kasrótn | kasrotā́n | kasrotū́n | |
Perfect | arkasrótn | arkasrotā́n | arkasrotū́n | |
Conditional | Present | bankasû́nm | bankasûnā́n | bankasûnī́n |
Past | banarkasû́sn | banarkasûsā́n | banarkasûsū́n | |
Imperative | kasūtnố | kasūtná | kasūtnû́ |
Third conjugation, -óš
Third conjugation verbs have the ending -óš in the infinitive. For example fûrnóš [to stand (up)] is conjugated as follows:
Conjugation of fûrnóš (to stand) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Participles | Present | fûrnámô | Past | fûrnážamô |
Singular | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | fûrnố | fûrná | fûrnû́ | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | fûrnáž | fûrnažā́ | fûrnažū́ | |
Perfect | afûrnáž | afûrnažā́ | afûrnažū́ | |
Pluperfect | aiyafûrnáž | aiyafûrnažā́ | aiyafûrnažū́ | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | fûrnót | fûrnotā́ | fûrnotū́ | |
Perfect | afûrnót | afûrnotā́ | afûrnotū́ | |
Conditional | Present | banfûrnố | banfûrná | banfûrnû́ |
Past | banafûrnáž | banafûrnažā́ | banafûrnažū́ | |
Imperative | fûrnošố | fûrnošá | fûrnošû | |
Plural | ||||
Gender → | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Indicative | Present | |||
Simple | fûrnốm | fûrnám | fûrnû́m | |
Past | ||||
Imperfect | fûrnážm | fûrnažā́m | fûrnažū́m | |
Perfect | arfûrnážm | arfûrnažā́m | arfûrnažū́m | |
Pluperfect | aiyarfûrnážm | aiyarfûrnažā́m | aiyarfûrnažū́m | |
Future | ||||
Imperfect | fûrnótm | fûrnotā́m | fûrnotū́m | |
Perfect | arfûrnótm | arfûrnotā́m | arfûrnotū́m | |
Conditional | Present | banfûrnốm | banfûrnám | banfûrnû́m |
Past | banarfûrnážm | banarfûrnažā́m | banarfûrnažū́m | |
Imperative | fûrnošmố | fûrnošmá | fûrnošmû |
Voices
There are three voices in Kihā́mmic, the active, the dynamic passive and the static passive.
Active voice
The active voice is unmarked in Kihā́mmic.
Dynamic passive voice
Kihā́mmic has two passive voices, the first of which is the dynamic passive. It is formed by placing the particle pṓl before the appropriate verb. For example:
"I burn": Ékô rātố
"I am burnt": Ékô pṓl rātố
"I have burnt": Ékô arātáž
"I have been burnt": Ékô pṓl arātáž
"I will burn": Ékô fûrnót
"I will be burnt": Ékô pṓl fûrnót
The dynamic passive is used in phrases such as "I am burnt every time I go in the sun", more commonly expressed in modern English as "I get burnt every time I go in the sun".
Static passive voice
The second passive is the static passive. It is constructed just as the passive voice in English and French – by using the appropriate tense of "to be" followed by the past participle of the verb that is to be in the passive. E.g.:
"I am burnt": Ékô sói rātážamô
"I have been burnt": Ékô atáz rātážamô
"I will be burnt": Ékô tróp rātážamô
Continuous
Although Kihā́mmic has no aspects per se, there is a continuous particle that indicates that the verb has a continuous "aspect". The particle "aklá" is placed before the verb, for example:
"I play": Ékô garanói
"I am playing": Ékô aklá garanói
"I have played": Ékô agaranáz
"I have been playing": Ékô aklá agaranáz
"I will play": Ékô garantóp
"I will be playing": Ékô aklá garantóp
Reflexives
Reflexive verbs are produced the same way as in English. That is, the appropriate verb is followed by the reflexive counter-part of the verb's subject in the accusative case.
Negatives
Verbs are made negative by bā́n [not] accompanying the verb, normally proceeding it.
Irregular verbs
There are only eleven irregular verbs in Kihā́mmic, they are:
- sád : to be
- ímat: to have
- venád: to go
- libád: to like
- hotád: to want
- mégač: to be able
- snarát: to know [something]
- námač: to have to [moral obligation]
- koslát: to need [urgent need]
- akáfad: to kill
- šônát: to run
Adverbs
Adverbs are formed by replacing the adjective in question's ending with a corresponding adverbial ending.
- Type I adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -nômô. This ending is replaced by the adverbial ending –nō.
- Type II adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -ôvan. This is replaced by -ôvā.
- Type III adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -amô or -ômô (but not -nômô). These are replaced by -ā and -ō respectively.
- Type IV adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -atī́zô, which is replaced by –átzō.
- Type V adjectives have the standard singular masculine ending -ónsô, which is replaced by –ónō.
Word order
Kihā́mmic, like all Panlaffic languages, has the basic word order subject-verb-object in transitive clauses, but has a free word order in intransitive clauses. However, due to the case system, word order can be rather varied even occasionally in transitive clauses. For example, the intransitive phrase "ékô džố ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô" ("I went into the big building") can be arranged in twelve different ways, whilst still remaining grammatically correct:
- Ékô džố ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô.
- Ékô džố ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô.
- Ékô ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô džố.
- Ékô ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô džố.
- Džố ékô ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô.
- Džố ékô ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô.
- Džố ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô ékô.
- Džố ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô ékô.
- Ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô ékô džố.
- Ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô ékô džố.
- Ôyû́n lố ránômô hótô džố ékô.
- Ôyû́n lố hótô ránômô džố ékô.
Though word order is variable prepositions are tied to the compliment as adjectives are tied to theirs, however adjectives may be placed before or after the corresponding nouns. Articles are also somewhat restricted; they must always precede the corresponding noun in the phrase, but, depending on the order of other words applying to the noun, may not be directly next to it. The word order varies the emphasis of the sentence, the primary emphasis being initial and secondary emphasis being final.
An example of the standard order of a transitive sentence is shown below:
"JosephNOM gave Mary’sGEN bookACC, which he’d read halfACC of at schoolPREP from MondayABL to ThursdayTERM, to StephenALL across the tableINST, which was a brownish colourCOMP."
"YôfánNOM stagáz Mā́rīGEN azpīáACC, kétômī šốn aiyahazbáz gûláACC yán əkghálePREP nán zûkláABL yû́nə kû́rklə TERM, ôyán ĪzvánôALL ûkrā́ əbrákûINST, kétômô táz ának dorák kófnômakCOMP."
Other
Swadesh list
No. | English | Kihā́mmic |
---|---|---|
1 | I | ékô |
2 | you (singular) | dán |
3 | he | šốn |
4 | we | əkámô |
5 | you (plural) | tanám |
6 | they | žônám |
7 | this | étômô |
8 | that | étôvan |
9 | here | imná |
10 | there | omná |
11 | who | kémû |
12 | what | kómû |
13 | where | umná |
14 | when | sanā́ |
15 | how | fáz |
16 | not | bán |
17 | all | tôván |
18 | many | stág |
19 | some | anám |
20 | few | ədás |
21 | other | kátrômô |
22 | one | zún |
23 | two | dočá |
24 | three | tṓk |
25 | four | kûrá |
26 | five | préik |
27 | big | ránômô |
28 | long | laā́mômô |
29 | wide | kāpónsô |
30 | thick | angkhámô |
31 | heavy | þúdômô |
32 | small | málnômô |
33 | short | dénômô |
34 | narrow | žā́rôvan |
35 | thin | doámô |
36 | woman | evmá |
37 | man (adult male) | hálô |
38 | man (human being) | éhalû |
39 | child | zū́zû |
40 | wife | kotá |
41 | husband | mû́k |
42 | mother | mabá |
43 | father | dárat |
44 | animal | aták |
45 | fish | rīná |
46 | bird | īfá |
47 | dog | gốt |
48 | louse | lūgá |
49 | snake | zébô |
50 | worm | čabá |
51 | tree | ečá |
52 | forest | íztāk |
53 | stick | klé |
54 | fruit | fûigá |
55 | seed | bót |
56 | leaf | átəl |
57 | root | yát |
58 | bark | klû́d |
59 | flower | šūriá |
60 | grass | lafá |
61 | rope | táp |
62 | skin | béld |
63 | meat | fandé |
64 | blood | zánk |
65 | bone | takī́ |
66 | fat | lúp |
67 | egg | yék |
68 | horn | gā́b |
69 | tail | gká |
70 | feather | vōpá |
71 | hair | záv |
72 | head | kápt |
73 | ear | orán |
74 | eye | čû́ |
75 | nose | nūšá |
76 | mouth | otá |
77 | tooth | nánû |
78 | tongue | tárûk |
79 | fingernail | ongá |
80 | foot | pádû |
81 | leg | džánû |
82 | knee | épon |
83 | hand | mánt |
84 | wing | vólt |
85 | belly | dū́m |
86 | guts | okrənám |
87 | neck | kûl |
88 | back | dozá |
89 | breast | sense |
90 | heart | gərá |
91 | liver | yûnī́ |
92 | drink | kasū́t |
93 | eat | karóš |
94 | bite | gašū́t |
95 | suck | — |
96 | spit | — |
97 | vomit | — |
98 | blow | — |
99 | breathe | — |
100 | laugh | — |
101 | see | bedóš |
102 | hear | — |
103 | know | snarát |
104 | think | pridumstáþ |
105 | smell | — |
106 | fear | — |
107 | sleep | — |
108 | live | vežáþ |
109 | die | — |
110 | kill | akáfad |
111 | fight | — |
112 | hunt | — |
113 | hit | — |
114 | cut | — |
115 | split | — |
116 | stab | — |
117 | scratch | — |
118 | dig | — |
119 | swim | — |
120 | fly | — |
121 | walk | — |
122 | come | — |
123 | lie | — |
124 | sit | — |
125 | stand | fûrnóš |
126 | turn | pahebnóš |
127 | fall | — |
128 | give | — |
129 | hold | — |
130 | squeeze | — |
131 | rub | — |
132 | wash | — |
133 | wipe | — |
134 | pull | — |
135 | push | — |
136 | throw | — |
137 | tie | — |
138 | sew | — |
139 | count | — |
140 | say | zakráþ |
141 | sing | aináþ |
142 | play | garanáþ |
143 | float | — |
144 | flow | — |
145 | freeze | — |
146 | swell | — |
147 | sun | kāžá |
148 | moon | ốnô |
149 | star | kāžá |
150 | water | ográ |
151 | rain | žáû |
152 | river | paná |
153 | lake | klôná |
154 | sea | zûná |
155 | salt | sintá |
156 | stone | dól |
157 | sand | zā́þ |
158 | dust | úþ |
159 | earth | ûþál |
160 | cloud | flûv |
161 | fog | ód |
162 | sky | hā́n |
163 | wind | fáve |
164 | snow | gáš |
165 | ice | glós |
166 | smoke | rū́n |
167 | fire | rā́t |
168 | ash | uþrá |
169 | burn | rātóš |
170 | road | lā́g |
171 | mountain | klāvá |
172 | red | vílnômô |
173 | green | bétnômô |
174 | yellow | žólnômô |
175 | white | álnômô |
176 | black | nī́nômô |
177 | night | mád |
178 | day | klûré |
179 | year | û́tû |
180 | warm | káþômô |
181 | cold | hānômô |
182 | full | patī́zô |
183 | new | námô |
184 | old | dốmô |
185 | good | batī́zô |
186 | bad | ítôvan |
187 | rotten | pûtázamô |
188 | dirty | sélnômô |
189 | straight | lánômô |
190 | round | sônatī́zô |
191 | sharp | zápôvan |
192 | dull | þrənámô |
193 | smooth | zū́þômô |
194 | wet | ókramô |
195 | dry | ázkôvan |
196 | correct | ranatī́zô |
197 | near | klūsā́ |
198 | far | dálžā |
199 | right | polá |
200 | left | nalá |
201 | at | yán |
202 | in | yû́n |
203 | with | sū́ |
204 | and | é |
205 | if | dái |
206 | because | paškomá |
207 | name | tīdá |
Other vocabulary
Other lists of vocabulary can be found below:
- Ages and names
- Basic phrases
- Colours
- Conjunctions
- Countries
- Date and time
- Family
- Idioms
- Months and days
- Numbers
- Prepositions
- Seasons and weather
Example texts
Featured banner
Kihā́mmic:
- Étômô tárak kraglošáz zúnā.
- Šốn atáz spratážamô sád kraglošázamô sûčā́ šốnûmī batī́stûnī kālóī, kaiþástûnī é izbanûnámī mégačstûnī.
Gloss:
- This language was featured [lit: "made important"] once.
- It has been chosen [or "voted"] to be featured because of [or "thanks to"] its level of quality [lit: "goodness"], plausibility [lit: "truthfulness"] and useful ability [lit: "ableness"].
English:
- This language was once featured.
- Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility and usage capabilities, it has been voted as featured.