The purpose of this page is to collect a fairly comprehensive list of derivational morphology methods (e.g., affixes) which can be used to derive more vocabulary from existing roots. Several existing conlangs have extensive derivational morphology methods (e.g., Volapük, Esperanto, Ithkuil, Ladekwa, and many others), but as far as we can tell there is no comprehensive list comparing all their affix inventories, those of natural languages, and other possible ways to derive more words from roots.
Gary Shannon has made a start at a list of derivation functions .
Good sources would include the Ithkuil site, the Ladekwa site, the gjâ-zym-byn site, a list of Esperanto affixes, & ditto for Volapük and Ido. Rick Harrison's article on "Verb Aspect" covers several possibilities for using aspect-marking to derive one verb/action word from another.
Other resources include these CONLANG mailing list threads:
And this konyalanguage mailing list thread, on semantic conversions between nouns, verbs, modifiers and adpositions:
And this list of types of noun-noun compounds by Ivan Derzhanski and John Cowan.
This list can't be exhaustive of the possibilities. For instance, in Hixkaryana several of the verb > noun patterns can involve tense distinctions; in addition to some of the affixes mentioned below there are others with the same basic meaning but a different tense. Esperanto does a limited amount of this with its tense/aspect distinctions in participles.
List of affixation semantic patterns[]
Verb > Verb
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Opposite (reverse action) - agent and patient remain the same, action of the verb changes | earn <==> spend
stretch <==> squeeze borrow <==> repay do <==> undo emphasise <==> de-emphasise |
English "un-"[1]
Esperanto "mal-"
Azjherben |
| Opposite/passivization - agent and patient or experiencer and focus swap places | to hit > to be hit by
to like > to be pleasing to to see > be seen by |
Ceqli "be-" |
| Opposite (complementary action) - swap agent of ditransitive verb with source/recipient, leaving patient the same
Or more simply, add 'back' (move > move back / return) |
throw <==> catch
lend <==> borrow give <==> receive |
gjâ-zym-byn "-θaj" |
| Causative from other verb (increase transitivity, turn impersonal verb into agent-intransitive, intransitive verb into transitive, transitive into ditransitive) | to rain > to water (plants, etc.)
to die > to kill to have > to give |
Navaho "-ł"
Maori "whaka-" Kele "te-" |
| Motion purpose: go somewhere in order to do VERB | to buy > to go shopping | Mandarin "lái-" |
| Scattering, chaosizing | break > shatter
fall > fall apart |
Volapük "dä-" |
| To VERB more than / to a greater degree than does NOUN | be sold > outsell
perform > outperform |
English "out-" |
| To ask to do VERB | Arabic Form X (استفعل) |
Noun > Noun
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Relationship > person which is in that relationship to someone else | fatherhood > father
marriage > spouse |
Volapük "mat" > "matan" |
| Place with lots of NOUN | book > library
tree > forest house > city |
Esperanto "-ej-"
gjâ-zym-byn "-ĵwa" |
| Augmentative | big > huge
house > mansion cat > lion |
Hixkaryana "ymo"
English "mega-", "super-", "-zilla" Volapük "da-" and "le-" (different degrees) Esperanto "-eg" Japanese "dai-" |
| Pejorative | man > scoundrel
child > brat to talk > to gossip, to babble conlang > lame relex of English |
Hixkaryana "tho"
Volapük "lu-" Esperanto "-aĉ" |
| Relationships by marriage or remarriage derived from basic blood kinship terms | sister > sister-in-law
son > stepson |
English step-~, ~-in-law
Volapük "lü-" Esperanto "bo-" gjâ-zym-byn "-mla" (spouse of one's relative) and "-tôl" (relative of one's spouse) |
| NOUN is made from (not of) NOUN | sucrose > caramel
coal > diamond flour > bread |
Finnish: -nen |
| Name of disease cause > name of disease caused by same | amoeba > diarrhoea
Yersinia pestis > black plague grass > hay fever poison ivy > poison ivy |
|
| Part of the body > name of disease affecting it | tonsil > tonsillitis | |
| Diminutive - Making Noun small or cute | dog > doggy
cup of coffee > small cup of coffee bird > birdy |
Dutch: -tje
French - ette Latin - ulus |
Adjective > Adjective
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Opposite (quality) | happy > sad
clear > vague |
English "un-"
French "des-" Swedish "o-" Volapük "ne-" Esperanto "mal-" |
Verb > Noun
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Person who is doing VERB at the moment (nominal participle) | run > runner | English "-er"
Esperanto "-anto" (also future "-onto" and past "-into") Latin "-tor, -toris" |
| Person who does VERB in company with someone else | to travel > travel companion
to have sex > lover to conspire > co-conspirator |
Hixkaryana "-hɨyemɨ"
Greek "syn-" English "co-~-er/-or" Esperanto "kun-~-anto" |
| Person who does VERB habitually / as an amateur... | conlang > conlanger | English "-er"
Esperanto "-em-ul-" gjâ-zym-byn "-pja" |
| Person who does VERB professionally / is concerned with NOUN professionally | play music > musician
teeth > dentist |
English "-ist", "-er", "-or"
Esperanto "-ist-" gjâ-zym-byn "-tla" |
| Place where VERB is typically done | to cook > kitchen
to sleep > bedroom |
Hixkaryana "-toho"
Esperanto "-ej-" gjâ-zym-byn "-kô" Japanese "-sho", "-ba" |
| Time when VERB is typically done | to sleep > night
to snow > winter to work > workday to rest > weekend, vacation? |
Hixkaryana "-toho" |
| Payment received for something | professional work > salary
menial murder > blood money work > wages |
Hixkaryana "-txhetɨ" |
| Tool used for doing VERB | to write > writing-implement
to dig > shovel |
Esperanto "-il" |
| Substance used for doing VERB | to wash > soap
to write > ink, graphite, etc. |
Esperanto "-ajx"
gjâ-zym-byn "-ha" |
| Body part/faculty used for doing VERB | walk > legs and feet
think > mind or brain? |
gjâ-zym-byn "-ŋĭw" |
| Thing or substance to which VERB is typically done | to read > text
to eat > food to think > ideas |
gjâ-zym-byn "-kar" |
| Thing or substance resulting from VERB | to cry > tears
to sweat (v.) > sweat (n.) to lactate > milk |
Hixkaryana "-nɨ-...-nɨ"
gjâ-zym-byn "-Φa" |
| NOUN = style or method of doing VERB | fight > martial art
write > script, orthography speak > language |
Japanese "-kata" |
Verb > Adjective
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| ADJ tending to often do VERB / be ADJ | think > thoughtful
forget > forgetful, absentminded sad > depressed |
English "-ful"
Esperanto "-em" Japanese "-nbō" |
Noun > Verb
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| VERB = to use NOUN in a typical way | tongue > to lick
lips > to kiss hammer (n.) > to hammer (v.) |
English: zero-derivation with many tool words, a few body part words (e.g. finger)
Esperanto: simple "-o" > "-i" verb derivation in many cases, "-umi" in others |
| To make into, to cause to be | glory > glorify
code > codify |
English: -ify |
| VERB = to have a NOUN | Hixkaryana (need to look up exact suffixes used for this) | |
| VERB = to seek NOUN | Arabic Form X (استفعل) |
Noun > Adjective
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| ADJ pertaining to NOUN | mind > mental
forest > arboreal world > global, universal |
Ido "-ala"
gjâ-zym-byn "-za" Japanese "-teki" |
| ADJ made of NOUN | gold > golden
wood > wooden |
gjâ-zym-byn "-na" |
| ADJ resembling, savoring of NOUN | cat > catlike
mint > minty |
English "-like", "-ish", "-y"
Esperanto "-eca", "-eska" gjâ-zym-byn "-tan" Japanese "-ppoi" |
| ADJ supplied with, having some/much NOUN | money > solvent or rich
word > expressive or verbose trash > messy liquid > wet |
English "-ful"
Volapük "-er" Esperanto -hava, -plena gjâ-zym-byn "-ža" having some amount of, "-da" having lots of |
| ADJ lacking or sparsely supplied with NOUN | teeth > toothless
money > poor water > dry or thirsty? food > hungry thing > empty light > dark |
Greek "a-"
English "-less" Esperanto "sen-~-a" gjâ-zym-byn "-ta" Japanese "mu-" |
Adjective > Verb
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Causative (derive VERB "causing PATIENT to become ADJ") | know > to teach
healthy > to heal |
English "-ify"
Volapük "-ük" Esperanto "-ig" |
| To turn COLOR | red > redden | English "-en"
Arabic Form IX (افعلّ) |
Adjective > Noun
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| Something that is ADJECTIVE | white (color) > white (person)
perennial (adjective) > perennial (flowers) |
Adverbs
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| ADVERB = for the purpose of VERB | Hixkaryana "-so" | |
| ADVERB = while doing VERB | Hixkaryana "-toko", "-wawo" (see Derbyshire 1979 for distinction)
Esperanto "-ante" Japanese "-nagara" | |
| ADVERB = after doing VERB | Hixkaryana "-txhe"
Esperanto "post-~-e" |
List of compounding semantic patterns[]
| Compounding pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| HEAD which has quality MODIFIER | young + person => child | bluebird |
| a HEAD originating from MODIFIER | society + language => natlang individual + language => conlang |
seawater |
| HEAD for the purpose/benefit of MODIFIER | walk + organ => legs and feet fly + organ => wings |
baby food refugee camp |
| to do verb HEAD to object MODIFIER | babysit wordcount | |
| an equal or roughly equal mixture of HEAD and MODIFIER materials | sodium + chlorine => salt fear + sadness => despair |
|
| a hybrid or combination of HEAD and MODIFIER | horse + donkey => mule human + horse => centaur |
|
| mostly HEAD with a little MODIFIER mixed in | carbon + iron => steel salt + water => saline | |
| a HEAD made of MODIFIER material | meat + cow => beef | gjâ-zym-byn "ķârn-byj" |
References[]
[1]: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/un
- Hixkaryana, Desmond C. Derbyshire. Lingua Descriptive Studies. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1979.