Proto-Nekturian

Name: Proto-Nekturian Type: Flexional Alignment: Nominative–accusative Head Direction: Initial Number of genders: 3 Declensions: Yes Conjugations: Yes Nouns declined according to Case Number Definitiveness Gender Verbs conjugated according to Voice Mood Person Number Tense Aspect

	Gender	Cases	Numbers	Tenses	Persons	Moods	Voices	Aspects
Verb	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Nouns	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Adjectives	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Numbers	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Participles	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Adverb	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Pronouns	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No
Adpositions	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Article	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Particle	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No

Characteristics

The Nekturian family of languages present some characteristics that can be found in almost all member languages:

1. Simple ("plain") phonology
2. Nouns, pronouns and adjectives have basically three genders, three numbers and ten cases (tending to a smaller number in most languages), sharing a common set of endings, with small differences from a class to other, in some languages
3. Verbs with flexions for tense (time+aspect), mood and person
4. Flexional morphology (words have a base form whose ending is changed)

Proto-Nekturian is the oldest known state of what is called "Nekturian", the language which originated a large number of important languages in Drion (like Tláymyts, for instance). It is uncertain whether this "proto" state really existed, as it was registered only at a time when its four subdivisions already existed. Most probably, the variations were already present at this stage of the language. It is theorized that the original Nekturian language was one if its four variants (North Nekturian, South Nekturian, East Nekturian, Center-West Nekturian), and that this "proto" language actually appeared only as a literary language.

Phonology

Although not using any exotic phoneme, Proto-Nekturian was very rich both in consonant and in vowel sounds.

Consonants

p [p]	t [t]	k [k]
b [b]	d [d]	g [g]
ph [ph]	th [th]	kh [kh], [x]
bh [bh]	dh [dh]	gh [gh], [ɣ]
s [s]	sh [ʃ]	z [z]	zh [ʒ]
m [m]	n [n]	r [ɾ]	l [l]
y [j]	w [w]	h [h]
kw [kw], [kp]	gw [gw], [gb]

While ph, th, kh, bh, dh and gh are aspirated consonants (like e.g. English "loophole"), the sh (like English "wash") and zh (like English "azure") are simple consonants.

Vowels

Vowels are:

Short	Long
a [a], [ɑ]	â [a:], [ɑ:]
e [e], [ɛ]	ê [e:], [ɛ:]
i [i], [ɪ]	î [i:]
o [o], [ɔ]	ô [o:], [ɔ:]
u [u], [ʊ]	û [u:], [ʊ:]
ö [ø], [œ]
ü [y]
M [m̩]
N [n̩]
R [r̩]
L [l̩]

The vowels â, ê, î, ô and û are simply long versions of a, e, i, o and u. While there is no meaningful distinction between open and closed e and o, the general practice is to pronounce them open when short (e [ɛ], o [ɔ]) and closed when long (ê [e:], ô [o:]).

Stress and Pitch

Stress in Nekturian is variable. Although words are generally stressed on the first syllable, this is not a rule. Sentence stress prevails over word stress. On the other hand, syllable length is very important, as long vowels have necessarily two times the length of short vowels.

Some old texts are traditionally recited with a pitch scheme applied to the words. Although this system seems to be very coherent throughout, there is no evidence of its actual use in the spoken language.

Morphology

Nouns

There are three gender of nouns: masculine, feminine and neuter. Nouns are declined according to three numbers: singular, dual and plural, and to ten cases, viz.:

1. Nominative (subject)
2. Accusative (direct object)
3. Dative (indirect object)
4. Ablative
5. Genitive (possessive)
6. Locative
7. Commitative (company)
8. Instrumental
9. Vocative
10. Ergative (agent for passive voice)

Noun declension is extremely regular, with no exceptions.

Masculine Nouns

Declension	Example: ûnanu "man", "person"
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative -u -uz -uddhes Accusative -o -ozh -oddhos Dative -uk -eks -egdhes Ablative -um -enz -undhes Genitive -ik -ikkes -ikthes Locative -or -orzh -ordhes Commitative -ub(ba) -ubbaz -ubdhas Instrumental -eng -engz -engdhes Vocative - -uz -udd Ergative -em -enz -endhes	Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative ûnanu ûnanuz ûnanuddhes Accusative ûnano ûnanozh ûnanoddhos Dative ûnanuk ûnaneks ûnanegdhes Ablative ûnanum ûnanenz ûnanundhes Genitive ûnanik ûnanikkes ûnanikthes Locative ûnanor ûnanorzh ûnanordhes Commitative ûnanub(ba) ûnanubbaz ûnanubdhas Instrumental ûnaneng ûnanengz ûnanengdhes Vocative ûnan ûnanuz ûnanudd Ergative ûnanem ûnanenz ûnanendhes

Feminine Nouns

Declension

Example: bhenêrêhe "family"

Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative -e -ez -eddhes Accusative -ew -ezh -eddhas Dative -ek -eks -egdhes Ablative -um -enz -undhes Genitive -ik -ikkes -ikthes Locative -or -orzh -ordhes Commitative -ub(ba) -ubbaz -ubdhas Instrumental -eng -engz -engdhes Vocative -a -ez -edd Ergative -em -enz -endhes

Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative bhenêrêhe bhenêrêhez bhenêrêheddhes Accusative bhenêrêhew bhenêrêhezh bhenêrêheddhas Dative bhenêrêhek bhenêrêheks bhenêrêhegdhes Ablative bhenêrêhum bhenêrêhenz bhenêrêhundhes Genitive bhenêrêhik bhenêrêhikkes bhenêrêhikthes Locative bhenêrêhor bhenêrêhorzh bhenêrêhordhes Commitative bhenêrêhub(ba) bhenêrêhubbaz bhenêrêhubdhas Instrumental bhenêrêheng bhenêrêhengz bhenêrêhengdhes Vocative bhenêrêha bhenêrêhez bhenêrêhedd Ergative bhenêrêhem bhenêrêhenz bhenêrêhendhes

Neuter Nouns

Declension

Example: dhêteti "city", "town"

Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative -i -iz -izzes Accusative -iw -izh -izzis Dative -uk -iks -izhes Ablative -um -inz -inzhes Genitive -ik -ikkes -ikses Locative -or -orzh -orzes Commitative -ub(ba) -ubbaz -ubzas Instrumental -eng -engz -engzes Vocative - -uz -udd Ergative -im -inz -inzes

Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative dhêteti dhêtetiz dhêtetizzes Accusative dhêtetiw dhêtetizh dhêtetizzis Dative dhêtetuk dhêtetiks dhêtetizhes Ablative dhêtetum dhêtetinz dhêtetinzhes Genitive dhêtetik dhêtetikkes dhêtetikses Locative dhêtetor dhêtetorzh dhêtetorzes Commitative dhêtetub(ba) dhêtetubbaz dhêtetubzas Instrumental dhêteteng dhêtetengz dhêtetengzes Vocative dhêtet dhêtetuz dhêtetudd Ergative dhêtetim dhêtetinz dhêtetinzes

Adjectives

Adjectives are declined exactly the same way as nouns. Each adjective inflects for gender, number and case.

There are adjectives with "free" theme and those with theme in -i. E.g., mupph- is a "free" theme adjective, while kLmti- is an adjective with theme in -i. The only difference is that this -i merges with a following i when am ending containing this vowel is added.

Mupphu, mupphe, mupphi "new", "young"

Masculine
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative mupphu mupphuz mupphuddhes Accusative muppho mupphozh mupphoddhos Dative mupphuk muppheks mupphegdhes Ablative mupphum mupphenz mupphundhes Genitive mupphik mupphikkes mupphikthes Locative mupphor mupphorzh mupphordhes Commitative mupphub(ba) mupphubbaz mupphubdhas Instrumental muppheng mupphengz mupphengdhes Vocative mupph mupphuz mupphudd Ergative mupphem mupphenz mupphendhes
Feminine
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative mupphe mupphez muppheddhes Accusative mupphew mupphezh muppheddhas Dative mupphek muppheks mupphegdhes Ablative mupphum mupphenz mupphundhes Genitive mupphik mupphikkes mupphikthes Locative mupphor mupphorzh mupphordhes Commitative mupphub(ba) mupphubbaz mupphubdhas Instrumental muppheng mupphengz mupphengdhes Vocative muppha mupphez mupphedd Ergative mupphem mupphenz mupphendhes
Neuter
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative mupphi mupphiz mupphizzes Accusative mupphiw mupphizh mupphizzis Dative mupphuk mupphiks mupphizhes Ablative mupphum mupphinz mupphinzhes Genitive mupphik mupphikkes mupphikses Locative mupphor mupphorzh mupphorzes Commitative mupphub(ba) mupphubbaz mupphubzas Instrumental muppheng mupphengz mupphengzes Vocative mupph mupphuz mupphudd Ergative mupphim mupphinz mupphinzes

KLmtiu, kLmtie, kLmti "great"

Masculine
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative kLmtiu kLmtiuz kLmtiuddhes Accusative kLmtio kLmtiozh kLmtioddhos Dative kLmtiuk kLmtieks kLmtiegdhes Ablative kLmtium kLmtienz kLmtiundhes Genitive kLmtik kLmtikkes kLmtikthes Locative kLmtior kLmtiorzh kLmtiordhes Commitative kLmtiub(ba) kLmtiubbaz kLmtiubdhas Instrumental kLmtieng kLmtiengz kLmtiengdhes Vocative kLmti kLmtiuz kLmtiudd Ergative kLmtiem kLmtienz kLmtiendhes
Feminine
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative kLmtie kLmtiez kLmtieddhes Accusative kLmtiew kLmtiezh kLmtieddhas Dative kLmtiek kLmtieks kLmtiegdhes Ablative kLmtium kLmtienz kLmtiundhes Genitive kLmtik kLmtikkes kLmtikthes Locative kLmtior kLmtiorzh kLmtiordhes Commitative kLmtiub(ba) kLmtiubbaz kLmtiubdhas Instrumental kLmtieng kLmtiengz kLmtiengdhes Vocative kLmtia kLmtiez kLmtiedd Ergative kLmtiem kLmtienz kLmtiendhes
Neuter
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative kLmti kLmtiz kLmtizzes Accusative kLmtiw kLmtizh kLmtizzis Dative kLmtiuk kLmtiks kLmtizhes Ablative kLmtium kLmtinz kLmtinzhes Genitive kLmtik kLmtikkes kLmtikses Locative kLmtior kLmtiorzh kLmtiorzes Commitative kLmtiub(ba) kLmtiubbaz kLmtiubzas Instrumental kLmtieng kLmtiengz kLmtiengzes Vocative kLmti kLmtiuz kLmtiudd Ergative kLmtim kLmtinz kLmtinzes

Comparative Form

Superiority

The suffix -êul- is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.:

• kLmtiu "large", kLmtiêulu "larger"
• mupphu "new", mupphêulu "newer"
• punnu "good", punnêulu "better"

Superlative

The suffix -êdhên- is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.:

• kLmtiu "large", kLmtiêdhênu "the largest"
• mupphu "new", mupphêdhênu "the newest"
• punnu "good", punnêdhênu "the best"

Pronouns

Pronouns follow the same declension system used for nouns and adjectives, with little differences in some forms.

Personal

Although there are dual forms for all pronouns, they were not always used, plural forms being preferred. Dual forms were used mostly when the speaker wanted to emphasize the fact that the elements were exactly two.

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st	iggwos	mudduz	muddhes
2nd	dos	phudduz	phuddhes
3rd m.	egîru	egîruz	egîruddhes
3rd f.	egîre	egîrez	egîreddhes
3rd n.	egîri	egîriz	egîrizzes

1st and 2nd person pronouns have special forms, while the 3d person pronoun follows the regular noun endings.

1st and 2nd Person Pronuns

1st Person	2nd Person
Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative iggwos mudduz muddhes Accusative niw mizh mizzis Dative nuk miks izhes Ablative num minz minzhes Genitive nik mikkes mikses Locative nor morzh morzes Commitative nub(ba) mubbaz mubzas Instrumental neng mengz mengzes Vocative - muz mudd Ergative nim minz minzes	Number Singular Dual Plural Nominative dos phudduz phuddhes Accusative diw dizh phizzis Dative duk diks phizhes Ablative dum dinz phinzhes Genitive dik dikkes phikses Locative dor dorzh phorzes Commitative dub(ba) dubbaz phubzas Instrumental deng dengz phengzes Vocative do duz phudd Ergative dim dinz phinzes

Possessive

Possessive pronouns are declined like any other adjective.

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st	nêmêhu, -e, -i	muddu, -e, -i	muddhu, -e, -i
2nd	diu, die, di	phuddu, -e, -i	phuddhu, -e, -i
3rd m., f. and n.	dhîu, -e, -i	zîu, -e, -i	uddhîu, -e, -i

Demonstrative

• iddhiu, -e, -i "this" (very near)
• hizdu, -e, -i "this" (not so near)
• egîru, -e, -i "that" (far)
• hu, he, hi "this", "that" and also "the"

These follow the regular nominal declension. The form hu, he, hi is used in expressions like hi dhêteti "the (capital) city", hi pâri "the beautiful (things)" = "beauty", hu bhLdiu "the strong one", hi têsiti "that (what was) said".

Interrogative

• ghîu "what"
• ghânu "who"
• goheru "which"
• gûneng "how"
• hMtior "where"
• gohMtuor "when"

Relative

• ghîu "that"
• ghânu "who"

Indefinite

• hRkonnnu "some", "any"
• mamêhonnu "no", "none"
• duttu "all", "every"
• ghettu "each", "every"

Numbers

Cardinal Numbers

• 0 sâlu
• 1 honnu, -e, -i
• 2 tugwêdduz, -ez, -iz
• 3 dLdhes
• 4 gohedL
• 5 dhMgu
• 6 zihêddhes
• 7 dhâdi
• 8 uhêdu
• 9 mûphi
• 10 tâddhes
• 11 hontâddhes
• 12 tuguêtâddhes
• 13 dLdhetâddhes
• 14 gohedLtâddhes
• 15 dhMgutâddhes
• 16 zihêdtâddhes
• 17 dhâditâddhes
• 18 uhêdutâddhes
• 19 mûphitâddhes
• 20 phMdi
• 21 phMdi honnu
• 30 dlMde
• 40 gohelMde
• 50 dhêmgohMde
• 60 zihêddhMde
• 70 dhâdMde
• 80 uhêdMde
• 90 mûphMde
• 100 dhânu

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are regular adjectives.

• 1 bLnihêlu, -e, -i
• 2 dhîkMdu, -e, -i
• 3 dLdhîhêlu, -e, -i
• 4 gohLdu, -e, -i
• 5 dhMgMdu, -e, -i
• 6 zihêddhu, -e, -i
• 7 dhâdênu, -e, -i
• 8 uhêdepphu, -e, -i
• 9 mûphimmu, -e, -i
• 10 tâddhênu, -e, -i

Conjunctions

Coordinating

• ghoye "for"
• hî, goy "and"
• mahN "nor"
• dhât, nez, bûlN "but"
• uho "or"
• ihMted "yet"
• eddhêna "so"

Correlative

• hNpuz/ez/iz … hi … "both … and … "
• uho … uho … "either … or … "
• mahN … mahN … "neither … nor … "
• mewu … dhat … "not … but … "
• meddhu … dNpN … "not only … but also … "

Subordinating

• tibuhêd "after"
• gMdot "although"
• dhî "if"
• iddhâd "unless"
• ghîuk "so that"
• bLdMd "therefore"
• hebbîsL "in spite of", "despite"
• ghoye "because"

Verbs

Nekturian verbs present quite a challenge to the memory. However, the fact that there is almost no irregular verb comes to the relief of those learning the language.

In the standard form of the language there are really no irregular verbs. Some irregularities appear only in some local variants of the language.

Concepts

Each verb is inflected for two voices, three moods (four if we take the imperative in account). Each mood has ten tenses. For each tense, the verb is inflected for three persons and three numbers. So, in theory, each verb has 2*3*10*3*3 = 540 forms, plus 3*3 forms for the imperative, one form for the infinitive and 10 forms of participle, so 540 + 9 + + 1 + 10 = 560 forms.

In practice, many of these forms are not used (e.g., the pluperfect conditional of the passive voice, something like "he would have had been seen"), but the number of actually employed forms is indeed large, as the language prefers synthetic verb forms rather than phrasal constructions.

• Voices: Active and Passive
• Moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Conditional
• Tenses: Present, Present Continuous, Perfective, Aorist, Imperfective, Pluperfect, Past Continuous, Future, Future Perfect, Future Continuous
• Persons: 1st, 2nd and 3rd
• Numbers: Singular, Dual and Plural

Each verb has a root that is expanded with a thematic vowel (e, ê or i). To this theme (root+vowel) are added tense and personal suffixes. E.g.:

• bher-e-ø-um->bhereum "I speak" (root, vowel, present tense indicative, 1st person singular)
• bher-e-phe-nûz->bherephenûz "we were speaking" (root, vowel, past continuous indicative, 1st person plural)
• bher-e-zda-ka->bherezdaka "it was spoken" (root, vowel, aorist indicative passive, 3st person singular)

Sample Conjugation: Phêtiolu "see"

Here is the full conjugation of the verb phêt-i-olu "see". For other verbs, just change the root (in this case, phêt-) and the thematic vowel (-i- in this case).

Verb: phêt-i-olu
Active Voice
Indicative Subjunctive Conditional Imperative Participle Present ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-ø-um 2nd phêt-i-ø-ez 3rd phêt-i-ø-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-ø-nuz 2nd phêt-i-ø-zey 3rd phêt-i-ø-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-ø-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-ø-dez 3rd phêt-i-ø-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-â-um 2nd phêt-i-â-ez 3rd phêt-i-â-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-â-nuz 2nd phêt-i-â-zey 3rd phêt-i-â-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-â-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-â-dez 3rd phêt-i-â-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lah-um 2nd phêt-i-lah-ez 3rd phêt-i-lah-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lah-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lah-zey 3rd phêt-i-lah-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lah-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lah-dez 3rd phêt-i-lah-nga ---- Singular 1st - 2nd phêt-i-z 3rd phêt-i-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nuz 2nd phêt-i-zey 3rd phêt-i-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nes 2nd phêt-i-dez 3rd phêt-i-nga phêt-i-Mdiu Pres. Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nu-um 2nd phêt-i-nu-ez 3rd phêt-i-nu-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nu-nuz 2nd phêt-i-nu-zey 3rd phêt-i-nu-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nu-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-nu-dez 3rd phêt-i-nu-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nâ-um 2nd phêt-i-nâ-ez 3rd phêt-i-nâ-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nâ-nuz 2nd phêt-i-nâ-zey 3rd phêt-i-nâ-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nâ-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-nâ-dez 3rd phêt-i-nâ-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahnu-um 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahnu-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahnu-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-nga ø phêt-i-Mtu Perfective ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hêwo-um 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-ez 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hêwo-nuz 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-zey 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hêwo-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-dez 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hâw-um 2nd phêt-i-hâw-ez 3rd phêt-i-hâw-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hâw-nuz 2nd phêt-i-hâw-zey 3rd phêt-i-hâw-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hâw-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-hâw-dez 3rd phêt-i-hâw-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-um 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-nga ø phêt-i-tu Aorist ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zda-um 2nd phêt-i-zda-ez 3rd phêt-i-zda-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zda-nuz 2nd phêt-i-zda-zey 3rd phêt-i-zda-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zda-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-zda-dez 3rd phêt-i-zda-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zdâ-um 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-ez 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zdâ-nuz 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-zey 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zdâ-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-dez 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahda-um 2nd phêt-i-lahda-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahda-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahda-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahda-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahda-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahda-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahda-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahda-nga ø phêt-i-zdu Imperfective ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-phe-um 2nd phêt-i-phe-ez 3rd phêt-i-phe-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-phe-nuz 2nd phêt-i-phe-zey 3rd phêt-i-phe-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-phe-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-phe-dez 3rd phêt-i-phe-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-phâ-um 2nd phêt-i-phâ-ez 3rd phêt-i-phâ-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-phâ-nuz 2nd phêt-i-phâ-zey 3rd phêt-i-phâ-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-phâ-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-phâ-dez 3rd phêt-i-phâ-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-laphe-um 2nd phêt-i-laphe-ez 3rd phêt-i-laphe-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-laphe-nuz 2nd phêt-i-laphe-zey 3rd phêt-i-laphe-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-laphe-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-laphe-dez 3rd phêt-i-laphe-nga ø phêt-i-ttiu Pluperfect ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-le-um 2nd phêt-i-le-ez 3rd phêt-i-le-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-le-nuz 2nd phêt-i-le-zey 3rd phêt-i-le-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-le-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-le-dez 3rd phêt-i-le-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zâ-um 2nd phêt-i-zâ-ez 3rd phêt-i-zâ-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zâ-nuz 2nd phêt-i-zâ-zey 3rd phêt-i-zâ-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zâ-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-zâ-dez 3rd phêt-i-zâ-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahle-um 2nd phêt-i-lahle-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahle-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahle-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahle-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahle-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahle-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahle-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahle-nga ø phêt-i-lannu Past Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hî-um 2nd phêt-i-hî-ez 3rd phêt-i-hî-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hî-nuz 2nd phêt-i-hî-zey 3rd phêt-i-hî-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hî-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-hî-dez 3rd phêt-i-hî-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-um 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-ez 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-nuz 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-zey 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-dez 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahî-um 2nd phêt-i-lahî-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahî-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahî-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahî-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahî-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahî-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahî-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahî-nga ø phêt-i-tannu Future ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lihê-um 2nd phêt-i-lihê-ez 3rd phêt-i-lihê-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lihê-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lihê-zey 3rd phêt-i-lihê-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lihê-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lihê-dez 3rd phêt-i-lihê-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lâh-um 2nd phêt-i-lâh-ez 3rd phêt-i-lâh-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lâh-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lâh-zey 3rd phêt-i-lâh-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lâh-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lâh-dez 3rd phêt-i-lâh-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahê-um 2nd phêt-i-lahê-ez 3rd phêt-i-lahê-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahê-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lahê-zey 3rd phêt-i-lahê-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahê-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lahê-dez 3rd phêt-i-lahê-nga ø phêt-i-dolu Fut. Perf. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lizda-um 2nd phêt-i-lizda-ez 3rd phêt-i-lizda-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lizda-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lizda-zey 3rd phêt-i-lizda-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lizda-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lizda-dez 3rd phêt-i-lizda-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lâzda-um 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-ez 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lâzda-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-zey 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lâzda-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-dez 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lizlah-um 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-ez 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lizlah-nuz 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-zey 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lizlah-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-dez 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-nga ø phêt-i-lettu Fut. Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nulê-um 2nd phêt-i-nulê-ez 3rd phêt-i-nulê-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nulê-nuz 2nd phêt-i-nulê-zey 3rd phêt-i-nulê-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nulê-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-nulê-dez 3rd phêt-i-nulê-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nâl-um 2nd phêt-i-nâl-ez 3rd phêt-i-nâl-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nâl-nuz 2nd phêt-i-nâl-zey 3rd phêt-i-nâl-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nâl-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-nâl-dez 3rd phêt-i-nâl-nga ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nulah-um 2nd phêt-i-nulah-ez 3rd phêt-i-nulah-ka ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nulah-nuz 2nd phêt-i-nulah-zey 3rd phêt-i-nulah-kwin ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nulah-nuddhes 2nd phêt-i-nulah-dez 3rd phêt-i-nulah-nga ø phêt-i-lenniu
Passive Voice
Indicative Subjunctive Conditional Imperative Participle Present ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-ø-ên 2nd phêt-i-ø-eliz 3rd phêt-i-ø-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-ø-nur 2nd phêt-i-ø-gwey 3rd phêt-i-ø-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-ø-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-ø-day 3rd phêt-i-ø-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-â-ên 2nd phêt-i-â-eliz 3rd phêt-i-â-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-â-nur 2nd phêt-i-â-gwey 3rd phêt-i-â-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-â-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-â-day 3rd phêt-i-â-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lah-ên 2nd phêt-i-lah-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lah-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lah-nur 2nd phêt-i-lah-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lah-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lah-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lah-day 3rd phêt-i-lah-yang ---- Singular 1st - 2nd phêt-i-liz 3rd phêt-i-d ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nur 2nd phêt-i-gwey 3rd phêt-i-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-ney 2nd phêt-i-day 3rd phêt-i-yang phêt-i-yeu Pres. Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nu-ên 2nd phêt-i-nu-eliz 3rd phêt-i-nu-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nu-nur 2nd phêt-i-nu-gwey 3rd phêt-i-nu-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nu-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-nu-day 3rd phêt-i-nu-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nâ-ên 2nd phêt-i-nâ-eliz 3rd phêt-i-nâ-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nâ-nur 2nd phêt-i-nâ-gwey 3rd phêt-i-nâ-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nâ-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-nâ-day 3rd phêt-i-nâ-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahnu-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahnu-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahnu-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahnu-day 3rd phêt-i-lahnu-yang ø phêt-i-Mteyu Perfective ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hêwo-ên 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-eliz 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hêwo-nur 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-gwey 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hêwo-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-hêwo-day 3rd phêt-i-hêwo-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hâw-ên 2nd phêt-i-hâw-eliz 3rd phêt-i-hâw-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hâw-nur 2nd phêt-i-hâw-gwey 3rd phêt-i-hâw-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hâw-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-hâw-day 3rd phêt-i-hâw-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahêwo-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahêwo-day 3rd phêt-i-lahêwo-yang ø phêt-i-teyu Aorist ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zda-ên 2nd phêt-i-zda-eliz 3rd phêt-i-zda-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zda-nur 2nd phêt-i-zda-gwey 3rd phêt-i-zda-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zda-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-zda-day 3rd phêt-i-zda-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zdâ-ên 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-eliz 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zdâ-nur 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-gwey 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zdâ-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-zdâ-day 3rd phêt-i-zdâ-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahda-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahda-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahda-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahda-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahda-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahda-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahda-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahda-day 3rd phêt-i-lahda-yang ø phêt-i-zdeyu Imperfective ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-phe-ên 2nd phêt-i-phe-eliz 3rd phêt-i-phe-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-phe-nur 2nd phêt-i-phe-gwey 3rd phêt-i-phe-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-phe-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-phe-day 3rd phêt-i-phe-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-phâ-ên 2nd phêt-i-phâ-eliz 3rd phêt-i-phâ-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-phâ-nur 2nd phêt-i-phâ-gwey 3rd phêt-i-phâ-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-phâ-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-phâ-day 3rd phêt-i-phâ-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-laphe-ên 2nd phêt-i-laphe-eliz 3rd phêt-i-laphe-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-laphe-nur 2nd phêt-i-laphe-gwey 3rd phêt-i-laphe-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-laphe-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-laphe-day 3rd phêt-i-laphe-yang ø phêt-i-tteyu Pluperfect ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-le-ên 2nd phêt-i-le-eliz 3rd phêt-i-le-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-le-nur 2nd phêt-i-le-gwey 3rd phêt-i-le-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-le-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-le-day 3rd phêt-i-le-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-zâ-ên 2nd phêt-i-zâ-eliz 3rd phêt-i-zâ-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-zâ-nur 2nd phêt-i-zâ-gwey 3rd phêt-i-zâ-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-zâ-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-zâ-day 3rd phêt-i-zâ-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahle-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahle-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahle-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahle-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahle-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahle-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahle-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahle-day 3rd phêt-i-lahle-yang ø phêt-i-layu Past Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hî-ên 2nd phêt-i-hî-eliz 3rd phêt-i-hî-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hî-nur 2nd phêt-i-hî-gwey 3rd phêt-i-hî-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hî-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-hî-day 3rd phêt-i-hî-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-ên 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-eliz 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-nur 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-gwey 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-hîyâ-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-hîyâ-day 3rd phêt-i-hîyâ-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahî-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahî-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahî-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahî-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahî-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahî-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahî-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahî-day 3rd phêt-i-lahî-yang ø phêt-i-tayu Future ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lihê-ên 2nd phêt-i-lihê-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lihê-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lihê-nur 2nd phêt-i-lihê-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lihê-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lihê-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lihê-day 3rd phêt-i-lihê-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lâh-ên 2nd phêt-i-lâh-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lâh-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lâh-nur 2nd phêt-i-lâh-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lâh-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lâh-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lâh-day 3rd phêt-i-lâh-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lahê-ên 2nd phêt-i-lahê-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lahê-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lahê-nur 2nd phêt-i-lahê-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lahê-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lahê-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lahê-day 3rd phêt-i-lahê-yang ø phêt-i-doyu Fut. Perf. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lizda-ên 2nd phêt-i-lizda-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lizda-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lizda-nur 2nd phêt-i-lizda-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lizda-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lizda-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lizda-day 3rd phêt-i-lizda-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lâzda-ên 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lâzda-nur 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lâzda-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lâzda-day 3rd phêt-i-lâzda-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-lizlah-ên 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-eliz 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-lizlah-nur 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-gwey 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-lizlah-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-lizlah-day 3rd phêt-i-lizlah-yang ø phêt-i-lteyu Fut. Cont. ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nulê-ên 2nd phêt-i-nulê-eliz 3rd phêt-i-nulê-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nulê-nur 2nd phêt-i-nulê-gwey 3rd phêt-i-nulê-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nulê-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-nulê-day 3rd phêt-i-nulê-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nâl-ên 2nd phêt-i-nâl-eliz 3rd phêt-i-nâl-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nâl-nur 2nd phêt-i-nâl-gwey 3rd phêt-i-nâl-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nâl-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-nâl-day 3rd phêt-i-nâl-yang ---- Singular 1st phêt-i-nulah-ên 2nd phêt-i-nulah-eliz 3rd phêt-i-nulah-do ---- Dual 1st phêt-i-nulah-nur 2nd phêt-i-nulah-gwey 3rd phêt-i-nulah-kwas ---- Plural 1st phêt-i-nulah-nuddhey 2nd phêt-i-nulah-day 3rd phêt-i-nulah-yang ø phêt-i-lneyu

Syntax

Basic Word Order

In principle, Nekturian is a SVO language. Word order can be altered by some factors like emphasis or the presence of adverbs. Anyway, as the language relies heavily on endings to establish relationships between words, there is some liberty in the position of elements in a sentence.

Interrogative Sentences

Although not a rule, it is a common practice to begin an interrogative sentence with the verb. Ex.:

• Affirmative: Nazdli gumêydhiez diw. "The teacher knows you."
  • Interrogative: Nazdli gumêydhiez diw? "Does the teacher know you?"
  • Alternative Interrogative: Gumêydhiez nazdli diw? "Does the teacher know you?"

Subordinate Clauses

For adjectival, substantival and adverbial subordinate clauses there are two possibilities:

1. the verb is fully conjugated and the sentence is introduced by a conjunction; or
2. the verb is reduced to a participle, which assumes an appropriate case, and the sentence is not introduced by a conjunction.

In the reduced form, the subject of the reduced verb, if explicited, is marked by the ergative case.

Adjectival Clauses

Conjugated

The relative pronoun ghîu is used. It assumes the case that the word being represented would assume in the subordinate sentence. Word order is not altered. Ex.:

• rêphlu ghîo (acc.) gNblehêwoum "the book that I bought" (cf.: GNblehêwoum rêphlo (acc.) "I bought a book.")
• berephleddhes ghîeddhas têsizdaez "the words that you said" (cf.: Têsizdaez berephleddhas "You said the words.")
• izdulêhe ghîew melelihêka "the story that he is going to tell" (cf.: Melelihêka izdulêhew. "He is going to tell a story.")
• norêhale ghîe hosenuka phizdeto mikklo "the woman that is wearing a black dress" (cf.: Norêhale hosenuka phizdeto mikklo. "The woman is wearing a black dress.")

Reduced

The participle forms of the verb are used, according both to tense and voice. Generally, transitive verbs use passive participles, while intransitive verbs use active participles. However, transitive verbs may also use active participles, depending on the subject-object relation.

• rêphlu gNbleteyu nim "the book that I bought" (lit.: "the book [that has been] bought by me")
• berephleddhes têsizdeyeddhes dim "the words that you said" (lit.: "the words [that were] said by you.")
• izdulêhe meledoye egîrem "the story that he is going to tell" (lit.: "the story to be told by him")
• norêhale hoseMte phizdeto mikklo "the woman that is wearing a black dress" (lit.: "the woman wearing a black dress")

Attention should be payed to the fact that these verb forms (gNbleteyu, têsizdeyeddhes &c.) are actually adjectives, attributed to a noun in order to form a syntagm. Compare these syntagms with the full sentences below, with verbs conjugated in the passive voice:

• Rêphlu gNblehêwodo nim. "The book has been bought by me."
• Berephleddhes têsizdayang dim. "The words were said by you."
• Izdulêhe melelihêdo egîrem. "The story is going to be told by him."
• Phizdetu mikklu hosenudo norêhalem. "The black dress is being worn by the woman."

Adverbial Clauses

Conjugated

In their full form, adverbial clauses are introduced by conjunctions and prepositions like "when", "after", "before". Ex.:

• gohMtuor dhepihêwoka phLtetiw "when he found out the truth"
• tibuhêd ghîum zhikehêwoka "after he arrived"
• hMdîz ghîum nulilihêka "before he dies"

Reduced

The various participle forms are used, in the ablative case. The tense used reflects the tense in the "full" form of the sentence. The subject, if expressed, may be placed before or after the participle, and is also in the ablative case. E.g.:

• dhepitum (egîrum) phLtetiw "when he found out the truth"
• zhiketum (egîrum) "after he arrived"
• nulidolum (egîrum) "before he dies"

Note that the selection of tense depends on the chronological relation between the main sentence and the subordinate clause. Basically, if the actions are simultaneous, a present participle is used. If the subordinate clause happens "before" the verb in the main sentence, a future participle is used. If the subordinate clause happens "after" the verb in the main sentence, a past participle is used. The choice between active and passive follows the same principles explained for adjectival clauses. Some examples:

Simultaneous	Before	After
Bherezdaum duk egîrum zhikeMdium. "I talked to you when he arrived."	Bherezdaum duk egîrum zhikedolum. "I talked to you before he arrived."	Bherezdaum duk egîrum zhiketum. "I talked to you after he arrived."
Bherelihêum duk dim bhizheMtum bLdew. "I will talk to you while you are closing the door."	Bherelihêum duk dim bhizhedolum bLdew. "I will talk to you before you close the door."	Bherelihêum duk dim bhizhetum bLdew. "I will talk to you after you have closed the door."

Vocabulary

• Swadesh List
• Phrasebook

Sample

• "Duttuddhes ûnanuddhes meddhiyang rêphliuddhes, têkmêtetum hî têlihêdundhes. Egîregdhes lesewe hî gMzêhMzêhe, ghoy tiphinga eshêolu honnu uhodluk izbêlêdubba hLnMtetik."
  • ("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")