Progress 57% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Proto-Sato-Lhedh PSL | |||
---|---|---|---|
Type | |||
Fusional | |||
Alignment | |||
Nominative-Accusative | |||
Head direction | |||
Head-Final | |||
Tonal | |||
No | |||
Declensions | |||
Yes | |||
Conjugations | |||
Yes | |||
Genders | |||
No | |||
Nouns decline according to... | |||
Case | Number | ||
Definiteness | Gender | ||
Verbs conjugate according to... | |||
Voice | Mood | ||
Person | Number | ||
Tense | Aspect |
General information
Proto-Sato-Lhedh is a proto-language of the Sato-Lhedh language family. It evolved into Proto-Sattic and Proto-Eltic. It uses a syntactical order of SVO though as it is inflected this can vary.
Phonology
Consonants
Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɲ |
ŋk |
|||||
Plosive | p |
t tʲ d dʲ |
k kʲ kʷ 1 |
ʔ | |||||
Fricative | v | s | ʃ | ç 2 | h | ||||
Affricate |
ts (dz) |
tʃ (dʒ) |
|||||||
Approximant | (w) | l | lʲ | j | |||||
Flap or tap | ɾ | ||||||||
Trill | (ʀ) |
1 - The syllables qua, quä, que, que, quë, qui, quo and quö all realise qu as /kʷw/. However, the cluster quu (sometimes just qu) realises it as /kʷu/.
2 - This can appear as an allophone of many occurences of h.
Note that sounds in brackets only appear in dialects. When letters are doubled, they are lengthened e.g. /ss/ = [s:]. The letters that can be doubled are m, n, p, t, d, k, s, š and l. Stress is always placed on the first syllable of a word without exception.
Vowels
Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |||
Near-close | |||||
Close-mid | e | o | |||
Mid | ə | ||||
Open-mid | ɔ | ||||
Near-open | æ | ||||
Open | a | ɑ |
Alphabet
As an extinct proto-language no written PSL exists. However, the standard way of transliterating it (when differing from the IPA) is as follows (note that /a/ and /æ/ are represented by the same character):
Latin Script (transliteration) | IPA |
---|---|
a | ɑ |
ä | a/æ |
ë | ə |
ö | ɔ |
nj | ɲ |
nk | ŋk |
ṭ | tʲ |
ḍ | dʲ |
ḳ | kʲ |
qu-vowel | kʷw |
quu | kʷu |
' | ʔ |
š | ʃ |
ș | ç |
c | ts |
č | tʃ |
z | dz |
ž | dʒ |
ḷ | lʲ |
r | ɾ |
ŕ | ʀ |
Phonotactics
(s)(C)(r, l, ʲ)V(V)(r, l)(C)(C) e.g. sḳäirc (blood)
When two vowels occur together in this way, there is a slight glide that barely realises the second consonant. This is often thus considered either a single vowel or a diphthong. When vowels are in separate syllables they are separated by a glottal stop.
Dialects
Pronunciation of certain sounds changes depending on the main locations in which PSL is spoken, the North, West and South.
North | West | South |
---|---|---|
ḳ | ḳ | kj |
qu | kv | kw |
ṭ/ḍ | ṭ/ḍ | z |
ș | š | ž |
ḷ | ḷ | hl |
v | w | v |
r | ŕ | r |
Vh | Vh | V |
Sandhi
Proto-Sato-Lhedh has strict sandhi which causes assimilation towards the second consonant in a pair, both in terms of articulation and voicing. This is rarely reflected in writing. An example is ranpuore, pronounced ['rampu:oɾe]. There are some exceptions to this rule: the letters s, š, p, k and v will never change their voicing, but can cause voice change in the following sound (e.g. sd > st). The letters c and č also do not except in Southern dialects. The letter v never causes a change in place of articulation except with k (vk > sk), and excluding Western dialects. The main complication is that the sandhi occurs across word boundaries.
Grammar
Gender | Cases | Numbers | Tenses | Persons | Moods | Voices | Aspects | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Verb | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Nouns | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Adjectives | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Numbers | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Participles | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Adverb | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Pronouns | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Adpositions | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Article | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
Particle | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Declensions - Cases
- Nominative: Subject or following the verb nahkeṭ (to be).
- Accusative: Object, and used with most adpositions.
- Genitive: Showing possession (of...).
- Dative: Indirect object (to... or for...).
- Lative: Showing motion towards or into.
- Ablative: Showing motion away from or out of, or an instrumental.
Declensions - Noun Forms
First Declension
Consonant-final. Model noun = sat, water.
1 | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
NOM | sat | satal |
ACC | sata | sati |
GEN | satu | satan |
DAT | satah | satalah |
LAT | saṭo (1) | sataḷ |
ABL | satu |
satul |
Second Declension
ä-final. Model noun = valä, head.
2 | S | P |
---|---|---|
N | valä | valäc |
Ac | valläk (2) | valli (2) |
G | valluk (2) | valläm (2) |
D | valäš | valäšä |
L | vaḷo (1) | valeppe |
Ab | valep | valäṭ |
Third Declension
e-final. Model noun = puore, grass.
3 | S | P |
---|---|---|
N | puore | puoreș |
Ac | puorek | puorä |
G | puoriṭ | puorelä |
D | puorent | puorelä |
L | puoro' | puorenje |
Ab | puoruḷ | puoruḷan |
Fourth Declension
o-final. Model noun = tahno, finger.
4 | S | P |
---|---|---|
N | tahno | tahnon |
Ac | tahnok | tahnä |
G | tahnin | tahno'i |
D | tahnoḍ | tahnoi |
L | tahno' | tahn
ošo |
Ab | tahnek | tahnekke |
1) If the final consonant in the root here is any of t, d, l or k, it is palatalised in the lative singular.
2) In the accusative and genitive, the final consonant of the root is doubled if possible.
Articles
There are no indefinite articles in Proto-Sato-Lhedh. There are four definite articles which change based on declension and number of the noun.
1st/2nd | 3rd/4th | |
---|---|---|
Singular | hu | so |
Plural | he | se |
Adjectives
Adjectives function exactly like nouns. They are placed before the noun that they agree with in number and case. There is no gender; each adjective has a given declension.
e.g. so kalëram tane. The wise man.
the.34.s wise-nom.s man-nom.s
se kalëramal taleș. The tall men.
the.34.pl wise-nom.pl man-nom.pl
Adverbs
to convert an adjective into an adverb one must simply suffix to the adjective. Which suffix is used depends on the declension.
1st | kalëram (wise) | kalëramu (wisely) |
---|---|---|
2nd | je'tä (careful) | je'tänt (carefully) |
3rd | ḳase (fast) | ḳasella (quickly) |
4th | sto (tall) |
störi (toweringly) |
Pronouns
Personal
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
1st | sän | risnän |
2nd | kur | rikrun |
3rd | valt | vralit |
Interrogative
Who? | quör? |
---|---|
What? | iș? |
Where? | talët? |
When? | polët? |
Why? | pemiș? |
Which? | quahiș? |
How? | skarmä? |
Demonstrative
Further Proximate | aste |
---|---|
Proximate | kante |
Obviative | dente |
Further Obviative | valte |
Reflexive | raḍe |
---|
Pro-particles
aḳelu is a pro-verb. It stands in place of a verb used before it; which verb it refers to is determined by context. harkkan is a pro-adjective. This stands in place of an adjective.
e.g. čöiter nallu ki sän aḳelu. He left and so did I.
leave-inf be.3ps.past and I.nom prover
kalëram nah ki harkkan nuḷ. He is wise and I am also.
wise-nom.s be.3ps.pres and proadj be.1ps.pres
Verbs
Formation of verbs is simple as only two conjugate: to be - nahkeṭ, and the negative verb - säreṭ. Other verbs occur as an infinitive which is placed before the appropriate form of a conjugating verb. Note that all other verbs end in -er.
e.g. teler nuḷ (säräḷ). I (don't) go.
go-inf be.1ps.pres (not.1ps)
kalëram neda (säräd). You are (not) wise.
wise-nom.s be.2ps.pres (not.2ps)
To Be
nahkeṭ | Present | Past | Remote Past | Future |
---|---|---|---|---|
1ps | nuḷ | nulla | nähḷu | norol |
2ps | neda | nella | nähta | norod |
3ps | nah | nallu | nuhrä | noroh |
1pp | namuḷ | numal | nuhḷä | naromul |
2pp | nameda | namel | nämaht | naromud |
3pp | namah | namul | nahläm | naromuh |
To Not...
säreṭ | All Tenses |
---|---|
1ps | säräḷ |
2ps | säräd |
3ps | särhä |
1pp | särmäḷ |
2pp | särmäd |
3pp | särmähä |
Other verb forms do exist and are simple to form. The participle is formed by suffixing -e to the infinitive (telere, nahkeṭe) and the imperative by suffixing -av (telerav! nahkeṭav!).
Note that people in the South would be more likely to use the suffix -(u)tve or something with a similar effect than the negative verb, e.g. althisutve neda = You are without knowledge = You are not wise.
Derivational Morphology
PSL does not have an extensive derivational morphology. What it does is listed below.
Affixed to... | Meaning | Form | Example |
---|---|---|---|
Noun | Made of x | ju-x 1 | jusat = made of water |
Adjective | Un...x | pi-x 1 | pistan = not wet |
Noun | x...ful | ran-x 1 | ranpuore = grassy |
Noun | Not made of x | ḳu-x 1 | ḳusat = not made of water |
Adjective | (Very x)-est | x-nja 2 | stannja = wettest |
Adjective | Least/not very x | x-lto 2 | stanalto = least wet |
Noun | Excelling in x | x-cu 3 | althisucu = excelling in knowledge |
Noun | Lacking in x | x-tve 3 | althisutve = lacking knowledge |
1 - If the following word begins with a vowel the prefix ends with a glottal stop '.
2 - if the previous word starts with a vowel the suffix starts with a.
3 - If the previous word ends with a vowel the suffix starts with u.
Questions
The focus of a question suffixes -(o)šu. The final word in the question clause is val.
e.g. nah sto. He is tall.
be.3ps.pres tall-nom.s
nah stošu val? Is he tall?
be.3ps.pres tall-nom.s-? quer
Responses are either repetition of the main verb or otherwise use of the negative verb.
e.g. nah stošu val? -nah. Is he tall? -Yes. (lit. He is)
Sentential Arguments
Sentential arguments are formed roughly as 'for O Ving... ʔ S V.'
e.g. valṭo nahkeṭe kalëram '(sän) quecer nuḷ. I think that she is wise. (lit. for her being wise ʔ I think)
she-lat be-part wise-nom.s '(I-nom) think-inf be.1ps.pres
Relative clauses work like English but use reflexive pronouns.
e.g. so tane raḍe salakser nallu kamaträk. The man who hated elks.
the.34.s man-nom.s refl-nom.s hate-inf be.3ps.past elk-acc.p
Vocabulary
No. | English | PSL |
---|---|---|
1 | I | sän |
2 | you (singular) | kur |
3 | he | valt |
4 | we | risnän |
5 | you (plural) | rikrun |
6 | they | vralit |
7 | this | pačä |
8 | that | mašä |
9 | here | pač |
10 | there | maš |
11 | who | quör |
12 | what | iș |
13 | where | talët |
14 | when | polët |
15 | how | skarmä |
16 | not | säreṭ |
17 | all | jöda' |
18 | many | — |
19 | some | — |
20 | few | — |
21 | other | — |
22 | one | as |
23 | two | kan |
24 | three | den |
25 | four | vaḷ |
26 | five | kah |
27 | big | roč |
28 | long | 'vo |
29 | wide | pihejo |
30 | thick | pihejo |
31 | heavy | pjud |
32 | small | tiër |
33 | short | pi'vo |
34 | narrow | hejo |
35 | thin | hejo |
36 | woman | pane |
37 | man (adult male) | tane |
38 | man (human being) | — |
39 | child | sinte |
40 | wife | ero |
41 | husband | ero |
42 | mother | panje |
43 | father | tanje |
44 | animal | — |
45 | fish | — |
46 | bird | — |
47 | dog | — |
48 | louse | — |
49 | snake | — |
50 | worm | — |
51 | tree | öretä |
52 | forest | öretäl |
53 | stick | — |
54 | fruit | — |
55 | seed | — |
56 | leaf | — |
57 | root | — |
58 | bark | — |
59 | flower | — |
60 | grass | puore |
61 | rope | — |
62 | skin | — |
63 | meat | 'niskiso |
64 | blood | sḳäirc |
65 | bone | dromiṭan |
66 | fat | — |
67 | egg | — |
68 | horn | — |
69 | tail | — |
70 | feather | — |
71 | hair | sune |
72 | head | smuko |
73 | ear | lanne |
74 | eye | ḍeruk |
75 | nose | törhalal |
76 | mouth | ișjo |
77 | tooth | dromiṭan |
78 | tongue | doḍan |
79 | fingernail | — |
80 | foot | tiquëti' |
81 | leg | tikanjä |
82 | knee | — |
83 | hand | rapëti' |
84 | wing | — |
85 | belly | — |
86 | guts | — |
87 | neck | vippoä |
88 | back | valče |
89 | breast | — |
90 | heart | — |
91 | liver | — |
92 | drink | — |
93 | eat | — |
94 | bite | — |
95 | suck | — |
96 | spit | — |
97 | vomit | — |
98 | blow | — |
99 | breathe | — |
100 | laugh | — |
101 | see | — |
102 | hear | — |
103 | know | — |
104 | think | — |
105 | smell | — |
106 | fear | — |
107 | sleep | — |
108 | live | — |
109 | die | — |
110 | kill | — |
111 | fight | — |
112 | hunt | — |
113 | hit | — |
114 | cut | — |
115 | split | — |
116 | stab | — |
117 | scratch | — |
118 | dig | — |
119 | swim | — |
120 | fly | — |
121 | walk | — |
122 | come | — |
123 | lie | — |
124 | sit | — |
125 | stand | — |
126 | turn | — |
127 | fall | — |
128 | give | — |
129 | hold | — |
130 | squeeze | — |
131 | rub | — |
132 | wash | — |
133 | wipe | — |
134 | pull | — |
135 | push | — |
136 | throw | — |
137 | tie | — |
138 | sew | — |
139 | count | — |
140 | say | — |
141 | sing | — |
142 | play | — |
143 | float | — |
144 | flow | — |
145 | freeze | — |
146 | swell | — |
147 | sun | duksut |
148 | moon | piduksut |
149 | star | duksulto |
150 | water | sat |
151 | rain | valḳusat |
152 | river | hejasat / sat hejo |
153 | lake | ročat / sat roč |
154 | sea | ročat / sat roč |
155 | salt | — |
156 | stone | — |
157 | sand | — |
158 | dust | kahko |
159 | earth | ö' |
160 | cloud | mita'ä |
161 | fog | — |
162 | sky | ä |
163 | wind | rör |
164 | snow | 'naššä |
165 | ice | inikṭe |
166 | smoke | valḳu'ö'iḷe |
167 | fire | ö'iḷe |
168 | ash | nacu'ö'iḷe |
169 | burn | iler |
170 | road | — |
171 | mountain | cu'o |
172 | red | ḍä |
173 | green | rä |
174 | yellow | ḳä |
175 | white | mitane |
176 | black | tulice |
177 | night | mjä |
178 | day | mjo |
179 | year | — |
180 | warm | tö'iko |
181 | cold | nac |
182 | full | — |
183 | new | oši'ä |
184 | old | poši'ä |
185 | good | potä |
186 | bad | pitä |
187 | rotten | — |
188 | dirty | pišallo |
189 | straight | lappir |
190 | round | — |
191 | sharp | kitran |
192 | dull | pikitran |
193 | smooth | pikasno |
194 | wet | stan |
195 | dry | pistan |
196 | correct | tenkä |
197 | near | pačä |
198 | far | mašä |
199 | right | vinje |
200 | left | tatar |
201 | at | lak |
202 | in | ja |
203 | with | me |
204 | and | ki |
205 | if | peș |
206 | because | vjo |
207 | name | jenkur |
Common Conjunctions and Connectors
and | ki | if... then | peș... |
either... or | du... 'e | until | čin |
both... and | pa... 'e | since | čina |
neither... nor | stu... 'se | while | ruṭ |
because | vjo | before | krä |
in order to | lassë | after | rutä |
Kinship System
This works in a similar way to, say, Swedish.
father | tanje / ta- | son | tuli'e / tu- |
mother | panje / pa- | daughter | puli'e / pu- |
brother | quoḷe / quo- | m. cousin | stanne / sta- |
sister | moḷe / mo- | f. cousin | vanne / va- |
e.g. Grandmother (father's mother) = tapanje
Grandmother (mother's mother) = papanje
Uncle (father's brother) = taquoḷe
Uncle (mother's brother) = paquoḷe
Numbers
PSL uses a Base12 numeral system, thus there are separate numbers up to twelve and anything beyond is a compound of it and numbers below. Separate words exist for 120, 1200, 12000 etc.
1 | as | 13 | kanas | 30 | denjuc | 1320 | paskënehriskëdeh |
2 | kan | 14 | kankan | 36 | denskaṭ | 1453 | paskënehkanriskëdehkanas |
3 | den | 15 | kanden | 40 | vaḷvaḷ | 12000 | durvaneh |
4 | vaḷ | 16 | kanvaḷ | 48 | vaḷskaṭ | 120000 | mutrineh |
5 | kah | 17 | kankah | 50 | kahkan | 1200000 | pjelkiv |
6 | juc | 18 | kanjuc | 60 | kahskaṭ | 12000000 | quelkiv |
7 | rec | 19 | kanrec | 120 | riskëdeh | 120000000 | trenkiv |
8 | im | 20 | kanim | 121 | riskëdehas | 1200000000 | harnakiv |
9 | söm | 21 | kansöm | 133 | riskëdehkanas | 12000000000 | tinjakiv |
10 | peš | 22 | kanpeš | 240 | kanriskëdeh | 120000000000 | ṭelkasiv |
11 | äl | 23 | kanäl | 253 | kanriskëdehkanas | 1200000000000 | šakahkrak |
12 | skaṭ | 24 | kanskaṭ | 1200 | paskëneh | 12000000000000 | mišancak |
Example text
And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech.
ki hu kunä ö' nählam asu dromiṭänu.
and the.12.s all-nom.s world-nom.s be.3ps.remp one-gen.s tongue-gen.s
And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.
ki mutter lassë usunder nählam, ruṭ telere curi'ek, iskunier nahläm acikkäk ja ö'a *šinara; ki parter nahläm ja dentek.
and come-inf iot pass-inf be.3ps.remp while go-part east-abl.s find-inf be.3pp.remp plain-acc.s in land-acc.s shinar-acc.s and live-inf be.3pp.remp in there-acc.s
And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar.
ki tolier as aso nahläm: "telerav. uiserav risnäna lassë strailer naromul *priki ki torhella änsledder raḍä." ki vralit stranker nahläm *priki u'aräšä ki *släjäma satah.
and speak-inf one-nom.s one-lat.s be.3pp.remp go-impr allow-impr we-acc iot make-inf be.1pp.fut brick-acc.p and thorough-adv burn-inf refl-acc.p and they-nom have-inf be.3pp.remp brick-acc.p stone-dat.p and slime-acc.s water-dat.s
And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.
ki tolier nahläm: "telerav, uiserav risnäna lassë strailer *siti'a ki *täväk, so passo raḍiṭ teler noroh passo'; ki uiserav risnäna lassë strailer risnänah jenkura ëhur naromul neșrumi'äcanja ja kunnäk ö'a.
and speak-inf be.3pp.remp go-impr allow-impr we-acc iot make-inf city-acc.s and tower-acc.s the.34.s top-nom.s refl-gen.s go-inf be.3ps.fut top-lat.s and allow-impr we-acc iot make-inf we-dat name-acc.s unless be.1pp.fut apart-nom.p-very in whole-acc.s world-acc.s
And the LORD came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded.
ki so norvo mutter asto' nuhrä lassë ḳapper hu *siti'a ki hu *täväk, raḍä sinteș panelä strailer nahläm vraliti.
and the.34.s master-nom.s come-inf here-lat.s be.3ps.remp iot see-inf the.12.s city-acc.s and the.12.s tower-acc.s refl-acc.p child-nom.p man-gen.p make-inf be.3pp.remp they-acc.p
And the LORD said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.
Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.
So the LORD scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the city.
Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the LORD did there confound the language of all the earth: and from thence did the LORD scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth.