Proto-Taspin

Proto-Taspen is the language of the south east lands in Bidunia. This is the most ancient classical language of the people who first migrated into the area.

Proto-Taspen
Type	Agglutinative
Alignment	Tripartite
Head direction	Initial
Tonal	No
Declensions	Yes
Conjugations	Yes
Genders
Nouns decline according to...
Case	Number
Definiteness	Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice	Mood
Person	Number
Tense	Aspect
Meta-information
Progress	99%
Statistics Nouns 100% Verbs 100% Adjectives 100% Syntax 100% Words 495 of 750
Creator	Bryce16

Classification and Dialects

This language diverged into several dialects that became their own languages.

Phonology

Consonants

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n		ŋ
Stops	p	t		k
Asp Stops	ph	th		kh
Eject Stops	p'	t'		k'
Fricatives		s			h
Approximant	w		j
Trill		r
Flap or tap		r

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Mid	e		o
Low		a

Allophony

1. Consonant clusters formed by two oral stops most always assimilate. The first stop assimilates to the POA of the second stop, creating a geminate. E.g. etath "dark" > etakkhe "night"

Phonotactics

In general syllables are constructed as (C)V(C)(C), where the coda consonants are not consecutive obstruents. There are exceptions to all that of course, but that's the general plan.

Writing System

These are an early agricultural/hunter-gatherer people, and as such did not have writing. Although, writing would develop later as a logographic system. (right? or did trade with other civilizations bring writing?)

Grammar

Pronouns

Pronouns have all the same cases as nouns, but with one important difference. Singular non-interrogative pronouns in the ABS case are always marked and end with an "-o". E.g. so, tho, mo, rjommo, ithawo, maihso. The interrogative pronouns do not typically decline, so need not end in "-o", and the plurals of the listed pronouns just add a "-p".

	SG	PL
ABS	so	sop
ERG	se	sope
ACC	su	sopu
DAT	so	sopo
GEN	sum	sopum
ABL	sa	sopa
INSTR	saj	sopaj
VOC	sir	sopir
LOC	si	sopi

Nouns

There are nine cases in PT that have no particular order. They are all suffixes that are added onto the root word.

Absolutive

The ABS case is unmarked on the noun, and it is used for the subjects of intransitive verbs. Adjectives, however, take an "o" suffix to agree with an ABS noun. Pronouns also end in "-o".

E.g.

K'aphakhir k'at ihe pharamithoum

PAST.PFV-eat person.ABS on day.summer-MED-GEN

A person ate yesterday.

Ergative

The ergative case is marked with "-e", and it is used for the subjects of transitive verbs.

E.g.

Ermephaja k'athonope ŋesu

PRES-GNO-drink child-PL-ERG water-ACC

Children drink water.

Accusative

The accusative case is marked with "-u" and is used for the objects of transitive verbs.

E.g.

Ermephaja k'athonope ŋesu

PRES-GNO-drink child-PL-ERG water-ACC

Children drink water.

Dative

The dative case is marked with "-o" and is used for the indirect object or the beneficiary. It traditionally comes after the ACC.

E.g.

Thet'ep'an jeŋure nurau sopo

PRES-IPFV-give sun-ERG light-ACC 1.PL-DAT

The sun gives us light.

Genitive

The genitive case is marked with "-um" and is used for alienable possession. It also is used in 3-way prepositions to indicate the temporal usage. It always follows the noun it describes.

AL possession is the default. Nonpossessables, such as the sun, fall into this category, as well as nouns that CAN be physically or metaphorically separated, such as trees' leaves

AL e.g.

Ablative

The ablative case is marked with "-a". It is used to mean "motion away from". It is also the required case for a few prepositions, and it's used in many more 2-way and 3-way Ps to distinguish dynamic motion from static (LOC).

INAL e.g.

Aŋsamani so pi umiso ŋesa moramahs

PAST-INCEP-go 1.SG-ABS to edge-DAT water-INAL.ABL day.winter-DIST

I started to go to the edge of the water on the day before yesterday.

Instrumental

"-aj"

Vocative

"-ir"

Locative

"-i"

Adjectives

Adjectives come after the noun they modify, and they agree with them only in case. This is for attributive As though. Predicate As are uninflected with no case, and this is how they are told apart. Also, predicate As typically come before the verb (free am I). Numbers, attributive or not, do not take any agreement. They also follow the noun.

Comparative

The comparative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-us'

Superlative

The superlative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-(e)rn'

Extremitive

The extremitive form of an adjective adds the suffix '-jot''

Moderative

The moderative form of an adjective adds the suffix '-ha'

Permanentive

The permanentive form of an adjective adds the suffix '-akhi'

Temporal

The temporal form of an adjective adds the suffix '-own'

Prepositions

Most prepositions (Ps) are pretty straight forward. Different Ps require the following noun to decline in a specific case, sometimes seemingly arbitrary, and sometimes to change its meaning. There are seven different types of Ps: absolutive, ergative, dative, genitive, ablative, two-way, and three-way Ps. The two-way Ps make the distinction between stative and dynamic senses, stative requiring the LOC case, and dynamic the ABL case. Three-way Ps make the same distinction, but they can also be used to describe time in some form. This temporal usage requires the GEN case.

Verbs

Verbs are separated into various classes, and they are distinguished by their suffixes. Verb classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 are respectively "-ir(-)", "-an(-)", "-is(-)", and "-aj(-)". On every verb are two obligatory markers, tense and aspect. Mood suffixes are optional.

At an earlier stage in the language's history, verbs became followed by an auxiliary or particle thing that had different meanings. They eventually wore away and are left as these suffixes on the verb. These different classes of verbs don't quite hold up anymore, but the general distinctions were made like so. Class 1 verbs (-ir) typically were personal verbs that have an intrinsic tie to the speaker like to be ir, to eat khir, and to love siri. Class 2 verbs (-an) were verbs of motion or flowing like to go mani, to see k'ane, and to catch toran. Class 3 verbs (-is) were typically used for statives and most adjectives were derived from verbs that took this ending. Class 4 verbs (-aj) were basically everything else. Many adjectives were derived from class 4 verbs too. Like everything, there are many exceptions like to take rokhis, to be named ano, or to flow ohir.

Tense

All tense markers are prefixes that attach to the beginning of the verb, before the aspect marker.

Past

The past tense is used as a general past tense for the PFV and DUR aspects, but adds a -continuous meaning for the INCEP, IPFV, and GNO aspects. This means that the action does not continue into the present. The prefixes "k'a-" and "aŋ-" are used respectively with verb types 1/3 and 2/4.

Recent Past

The recent past tense is used to describe verbs that are relatively recent. This varies wildly between verbs. This may be in the past few hours with the verb "eat", but in the past few weeks when you "climbed" a tree. In addition, it also acts as a continuous marker for PFV, IPFV, and GNO aspects, meaning continued into the present. There is only one prefix, "p'i-".

Present

The present tense is marked with the prefixes "the-", for verb types 1 and 2, and "er-", for types 3 and 4.

Immediate Future

The immediate future is used just as relatively as the recent past. It varies from verb to verb, and can be anywhere from later that day to in a month or two. It can also simply mean about to happen. There is one suffix, "no-".

Future

The future is marked with the prefixes "ju-" for verb types 1 and 4, and "um-" for types 2 and 3.

Aspect

The aspect markers are attached between the tense marker and the verb itself. They are really just a consonant because the vowel following the consonant marker assimilates to the same one used in the tense marker.

Perfective

The perfective aspect is used for verbs that have been completed by the time of the corresponding tense. It is used when talking about the event as a whole, rather than a time within the event like the IPFV. The perfective marker is "-ph(V)-"

Inceptive

The inceptive aspect is marked with "-s(V)-". It is used for verbs that are just starting at the tense indicated.

Imperfective

The imperfective indicates verbs that have already begun, but haven't finished. It is used when looking at a part of the whole, rather than the whole itself like the PFV. It is marked with "-t'(V)-".

Gnomic/Habitual

The gnomic aspect is a fun one. It was and is used to mark truths about the world and indisputable facts in the present tense, but it is believed that the speakers of PT had already begun to use this aspect for facts of all kinds, including feelings, truths, and beliefs. It conveys a stronger message. Over time, the (recent) past and (immediate) future tenses became synonymous as habituals. This became a permanent fixture for all four non-present tenses and became the sole means of marking the habitual in the language. It is marked with "-m(V)-".

Durative

The durative aspect signals that a verb is lasting for a little period of time. It has already begun and will keep going for a while, but will eventually stop. This applies to the wind blowing to playing an instrument. It uses "-w(V)-".

Tense and Aspect Chart for Late PT

	PAST	REC	PRES	IMM	FUT
PFV	in the past and completed I ate	recently completed I just ate	NA impossible	about to be completed I'm about to have eaten	will be completed I will have eaten
INCEP	began in the past but not continued in present -continuous I started eating	began in the past and still going +continuous I started eating	begins now I'm starting to eat	about to begin I'm about to start eating	will begin in the future I will start eating
IPFV	was happening in the past but not anymore -continuous I was eating	was happening and still is +continuous I was eating	occuring right now I'm eating	about to be happening I'm about to be eating	will be happening I will be eating
GNO/HAB	happened habitually in the past but no longer -continuous I used to eat	happened habitually in the past and still does +continuous I used to eat	generic truth or true now I eat	about to become habitual I will soon eat	will become habitual I will eat
DUR	occured for a while in the past I ate for a bit	recently occured for a while I just ate for a little while	occuring for a while right now I'm eating for a bit	about to be occuring for a while I'm about to be eating for a while	will be occuring for a while I will eat for a while

Rules for DUR:

The DUR can only apply to (anim/inan) activities, or other atelic verbs that have agents or animate subjects like some statives and semelfactives.

Mood

Negative

The negative mood is used just like Japanese. To specify that an action is not done, this mood is used. There are two morphemes that signify the mood. For 1 and 3 type verbs, the suffix "-mo" is used. For verb types 2 and 4, the suffix "-nu" is used.

E.g.

"-mo"	"-nu"
Imirmo so misik	P'iphik'anenu the su
PRES-GNO-be-NEG 1.SG.ABS bad	REC-PFV-see-NEG 2.SG.ERG 1.SG.ACC
I am not bad	You didn't just see me

Interrogative

The interrogative mood is used to ask yes or no questions. The suffix "-kho" is added to verb types 1 and 2, and the suffix "-par" is added to types 3 and 4.

"-kho"	"-par"
Thet'enomthirkho mop ŋa kenujopu mopum
PRES-IPFV-play-INTERR 3.PL.ABS with friend-PL-ACC 3.PL-GEN
Do they play with their friends?

Conditional

The conditional mood is used to express doubt, hypothetical situations, or irrealis statements. The suffixes "-sup" and "-he" are used respectively for verb types 1/4 and 2/3.

"-sup"	"-he"
Ert'ejek'ajsup so amso jumuohirsup jeŋur	Erphejamekishe haji so, net k'aphak'amirmo so
Er-t'e-jek'aj-sup so amso ju-mu-ohir-sup jeŋur	Er-phe-jamekis-he haji so, net k'a-pha-k'amir-mo so
PRES-IPFV-move-COND 1.SG.ABS when FUT-GNO-shine-COND sun.ABS	PRES-PFV-can-COND draw.INF 1.SG.ABS but PAST-PFV-learn-NEG 1.SG.ABS
I would move if/when the sun would/will shine	I would be able to draw, but I didn't learn

Desiderative

The desiderative is used to express genuine wants and desires onto the verb. This is added to verbs to indicate that it is a desire for the speaker to perform the verb. When wishing to use "want" as a standalone verb, i.e. I want food, then the verb nawis. Confusingly, you may also use nawis as an auxilliary to indicate that the desire/want for the verb is hopeless, fruitless, impossible, or disingenuous, without a possibility of its reality. The suffix is "-naws", and it is used with all verb types.

E.g.

P'it'ithajnaws se k'atopu

P'i-t'i-thaj-naws se k'at-op-u

REC-IPFV-lead-DES 1.SG.ERG person-PL-ACC

I want to lead the people.

E.g

Ert'enawis ir so k'athon t'up

Er-t'e-nawis ir so k'at-hon t'up

PRES-IPFV-want be.INF 1.SG.ABS person.DIM.ABS again

I want to be a child again.

E.g.

Ermenawis se rwek'imosu

Er-me-nawis se rwek'imos-u

PRES-GNO-want 1.SG.ERG food-ACC

I want food.

Deontic

The deontic is used for quite a few different things. It is used as an imperative, but it is also used as an optative to express your desires and wishes. It doesn't use any tense or aspect prefixing. The suffix "-m" is used on all verb types, however, the "n" in "-an" stem verbs gets deleted when it occurs next to "m". "-is", "-aj", and "-ir" stem verbs don't change. E.g. *P'anm! > P'am! = Give!

Voice/Valency changes

Active

There is no marking on verbs for the active voice. Transitive verbs and intransitive ones stay intransitive.

E.g.

Thet'epintan so t'orii

PRES-IPFV-live 1.sg.ABS house-LOC

I live in a house

E.g.

P'iphip'annu se phuŋau tho

REC-PFV-ask-NEG 1.sg.ERG question-ACC 2.sg.DAT

 I didn't just ask you a question

Passive

The passive construction is marked by the suffix "wi" on the verb. Like many passives, it takes the ACC and makes it the ABS. The original ERG argument can be left off or placed back in as an ABL. Intransitive verbs cannot be passivised. This construction is most useful for relative clauses, for only the ABS may be relativised.

E.g.

Aŋphak'ane se pik'u

PAST-PFV-see 1.SG.ERG tree-ACC

I saw a tree

Transformation:

Aŋphak'anewi pik' sa

PAST-PFV-see-PASS tree-ABS 1.SG.ABL

A tree was seen by me

Antipassive

This construction is used exclusively for the relative clause formation. It does not make any sense to use this construction outside of them because they are semantically equivalent. It also has SVO order. When going from ACT to ANTIP with a transitive verb, the suffix "mar" is added to the verb, the ERG becomes ABS, and the ACC becomes INSTR. For intransitive verbs, just add the suffix and flip the order. When this clause is used, the beginning clause usually needs to be passivised in order for the ABS to be the subject of both clauses. Auxiliary stuff (like ABL, DAT, INSTR) are usually placed before the Rel clause, but may go after too.

E.g. 2 arguments:

Ert'ephaja k'ate ŋesu

PRES-IPFV-drink person-ERG water-ACC

A person drinks water

Transformation:

K'at ert'ephajamar ŋesaj

person.ABS PRES-IPFV-drink-ANTIP water-INSTR

A person who drinks water

Application:

K'awasiriwi sa k'at aŋt'aphajamar ŋesaj

PAST-DUR-love-PASS 1.SG-ABL person-ABS PAST-IPFV-drink-ANTIP water-INSTR

For a while was loved by me a person who drank water

For a while, I loved a person who drank water

Middle

The middle voice in PT is used for four things: reflexives, mediopassive statements when the subject and patient are the same (the window broke), emotions (ich fühle mich gut), and impersonal verbs (it rains). The suffix is "-oŋ" and it attaches to the verb. NOTE: Reciprocals are denoted with pronouns, reflexives with MID.

Reflexive Use:

P'iphijot'anoŋ so ihe pharamrumum

REC-PFV-wash-MID 1.SG-ABS on day.summer-PROX-GEN

I washed myself today.

Mediopassive Statements:

K'amakowisioŋ kham thum

PAST-GNO-break-MID plant.ABS 2.SG-GEN

Your plant broke.

Emotions:

Ert'emart'ajaoŋ so rokhin

PRES-IPFV-find-MID 1.SG-ABS happy

I find myself happy.

I feel happy.

Impersonal verbs:

p'iwiwenisoŋ moraitho

REC-DUR-rain-MID yesterday

It rained a while yesterday.

Causative

The causative is the only valency increasing construction in Proto-Taspin. It is the suffix "k'" attached to the verb. With an intransitive verb, the ABS becomes the ACC and the causer becomes the ERG. With a transitive verb, the ACC stays the ACC, but the ERG gets demoted to DAT and the causer becomes the ERG. With a ditransitive verb,*************** If the addition of this suffix violates (C)V(C)(C) phonotactics, then an epenthetical "i" is added either before or after.

E.g. 1 argument

Ert'et'isi tho

PRES-IPFV-run 2.SG-ABS

you are running

Transformation:

Ert'et'isik' sope thu

PRES-IPFV-run-CAUS 1.PL-ERG 2.SG-ACC

I made you run

E.g. 2 arguments

Thesek'ane se nurarumu

PRES-INCEP-see 1.SG-ERG light-PROX-ACC

I'm starting to see the light

Transformation:

Thesek'anek' se nurarumu tho

PRES-INCEP-see-CAUS 1.SG-ERG light-PROX-ACC 2.SG-DAT

I'm making you start to see the light

E.g. 3 arguments

One phrase that you often hear children say to their parents is "you're making me give everything to ****(brother/sibling/sister/whatever)******************************

Auxiliary Verbs/Other Constructions

There are many auxiliary verbs in PT, and they before the subject like normal, but the main verb is then placed after the subject. Only one verb can be at the front of the sentence, so it is taken by the Aux. This allows the pronoun to merge onto the Aux for Taspen's person conjugation.

Habitual

The Gnomic aspect is used to mark the habitual in the non-present tenses. See below for an example.

The habitual is marked by reduplicating the first obligatorily max CVC syllable, typically always with the past durative. Very rarely is it anything else (right?).

E.g.

K'awarewrewir sope turaj wakhotrumu sajkhuru
PAST-DUR-HAB.REDUP-climb.up 1.PL-ERG hand-INSTR wall-PROX-ACC dangerous-ACC
Used to climb we by hand.EMPHASIS this wall dangerous.
We used to climb this dangerous wall by hand!

K'amarewir sope turaj wakhotrumu sajkhuru
PAST-GNO-climb.up 1.PL-ERG hand-INSTR wall-PROX-ACC dangerous-ACC
Used to climb we by hand.EMPHASIS this wall dangerous.
We used to climb this dangerous wall by hand!

Existential

The existential verb there is/are is a simple construction in PT. The verb is kis, which is the same verb as to have, but used intransitively.

E.g.

Ermekis tur ihe ituri
PRES-GNO-have hand.foot.ABS on ground-LOC
There is a hand on the ground.

Syntax

Word Order

Word order is pretty relaxed because of the case system, but there is a general convention that is followed. The verb usually always comes first, except in antipassive clauses and fronting of a nonverb for emphasis. The ERG always precedes the ACC (usually immediately). PPs generally come after the ACC, but may go wherever they fit best. Usually the ERG and ACC are adjacent, so any other cases that may be present usually follow these, including the DAT. To avoid confusion with the ABS, the DAT always comes after the ACC.

Noun Phrase

PT is a strongly head initial language, so it's no surprise that nouns always come first in their phrases. This means that adjectives, genitives, and relative clauses all follow the noun.

Stress

The stress of PT is a mostly fixed antepenultimate system with the stress on the 3rd to last syllable. The exception is when there is an ejective in the ultimate or penultimate position. These are heavy syllables and the stress appears on the rightmost syllable. So TL;DR, the rightmost ejective preceded syllable or the antepenultimate syllable will get the stress, whichever is closest to the end.

E.g. Nurak'áne = wake up = ejective triggered stress

Jósaphon = cool/cold = regular antepenultimate stress

Having heavy syllables be determined by the onset has been a mystery for some time. It is thought that the language used to have special codas, now disappeared, that triggered the weight. Something like pharyngeals or glottalized consonants. Another theory is that there were long vowels or diphthongs that shortened and monophthongized, leaving behind their heavy quality. There is no consensus. (but the daughter language stress regularized as one would expect. Right Bryce? Is it a good system?? hMM????????)

Stress is now being redone to make it more regular, naturalistic, and easier to evolve.

Stress in PT is weight-sensitive by three degrees: light monomoraic (V), heavy bimoraic (VC), and superheavy trimoraic (VCC). Iambic feet are formed left to right, and the right most iamb receives the primary stress. Light and heavy syllables cannot form feet by themselves, and so cannot receive primary stress if they are leftover outside of a foot. Superheavy syllables, however, can ONLY form its own foot and as such always has either secondary or primary stress, depending on its position.

(CVCC) - íwth "way"

(CVC.CVC) iw.thóp "ways"

(CV.CV).(VCC) - t'o.rì.ánkh "community.ABS"

(CV.CV).(VC.CV) - t'o.rì.an.khé "community-ERG"

(CV.CV).(VCC).CV - t'o.rì.ánkh.mo "without community"

(CVC.CVC) - pin.tán "live"

(CVC.CVC).CVC - pin.tán.mos "life"

(CVC.CV).(CV.CVC) - pin.tà.ni.més "one who lives"

(CVC.CV).(CV.CV).CVC - pin.tà.ni.mé.sop "ones who live"

(CVC.CV).(CV.CV).(CV.CVC) - pin.tà.ni.mè.so.phón "little ones who live"

(CVC.CV).(CV.CV).(CVC.CVC).CVC - pin.tà.ni.mè.so.phón.rum "these little ones who live"

(CVC.CV).(CV.CV).(CVC.CVC).(CVCC) - pin.tà.ni.mè.so.phòn.máhs "those little ones who live"

Complementizer Clauses

Complementizer clauses are easy because they just use the CONJ "kho" meaning "that".

E.g. I said that I was hungry.

I dreamt that I flew in the sky.

Relative Clauses

Relative clause are a bit more complicated than C clauses. The only thing that can be relativized is the absolutive case and PPs. This ABS must be lined up between the two clauses

Prepositional Phrases

PPs are easy to relativize. The object of the P is replaced with a pronoun with the correct case, and is placed between the two sentences.

E.g. The day I met you was a good day.

Was day good on it met I you.

PAST-GNO-be day.summer-ABS good-ABS on 3.SG-GEN PAST-INCEP-know 1.SG-ERG 2.SG-ACC

Amir pharam k'oro ihe mum aŋsajaman se thu

Ergative

To relativize the ergative argument, the clause must use the antipassive voice to turn ERG into ABS.

Accusative

To relative the accusative argument, use the passive voice to turn ACC into ABS.

Other Cases

To relativize other cases, the most common strategy is using a separate sentence.***

E.g. I cut the bread with a knife. It was sharp.

***Although, in the later years that this proto lang was likely spoken, the C kho became used to relativize other cases. This carried into the daughter languages as well (right Bryce?? RIGHT?????).

Conditionals

there are 4 words for if.

Certain conditional; amso; If/when I get off work, I will be happy. I will be happy if/when I get off work

-This conditional has the meaning that the antecedent WILL occur (or expected to anyway) in the future.

-It is also used for deductions, if that's the river, we're almost home, to contrast with hypotheticals.

-The antecedent is in the indicative mood, but the consequent is in the COND.

Hypothetical conditional; suhpi; If it starts to rain, I will go inside. I will go inside if it starts to rain.

-This construction expresses uncertainty as to whether the antecedent will occur or not.

-The consequent will happen if the antecedent happens, but is not too strong.

-Both the antecedent and consequent are in the COND.

Universal conditional; het; If I drop a ball, it will fall. A ball will fall if I drop it.

-In this condition, the antecedent is uncertain and may or may not occur, and so is marked with the COND.

-The consequent, however, is a fact and always occurs, and such is most always marked with GNO aspect. If another aspect is needed, then it is put into the COND mood.

-This meaning can be expanded to less factual situations, adding a meaning like certainly/for sure.

Whether conditional; kur; If/whether he came home, I don't know. I don't know if/whether he came home.

-This form is different from the others, more like a complementizer. It comes after intransitives.

-The antecedent is in the conditional, and the consequent is indicative for this meaning. In transitive verbs, it conveys a more 'whether or not' tone.

http://www.guidetojapanese.org/learn/grammar/conditionals

Lexicon

The Body

The body is organized a little differently to the way English divides it. Legs are different from arms, but hands/feet and toes/fingers are the same.

Extended Swadesh List 207 words

No.	English	Proto-Taspin
1	I	So
2	you (singular)	Tho
3	he	Mo
4	we	Sop
5	you (plural)	Thop
6	they	Mop
7	this	-rum
8	that	-itho/-mahs
9	here	Iturrum
10	there	Ituritho/Iturmahs
11	who	Uth
12	what	Newah
13	where	Thuph
14	when	Amso
15	how	Iwthnewah
16	not	-mo/-nu
17	all	Ik'us
18	many
19	some
20	few
21	other
22	one	Po
23	two	Ri
24	three	Okhu
25	four	Ŋus
26	five	K'i
26.5	six	Rihontur
27	big	Hut'
28	long
29	wide
30	thick
31	heavy
32	small	Kap'i
33	short
34	narrow
35	thin
36	woman	Ephiw
37	man (adult male)	Ars
38	man (human being)	K'at
39	child	K'athon
40	wife
41	husband
42	mother
43	father
44	animal
45	fish
46	bird
47	dog
48	louse
49	snake
50	worm
51	tree	Pik'
52	forest	Pik'ankh
53	stick
54	fruit
55	seed
56	leaf	Tark
57	root
58	bark (of a tree)
59	flower	Khamema
60	grass
61	rope
62	skin
63	meat
64	blood
65	bone
66	fat (noun)
67	egg
68	horn
69	tail
70	feather
71	hair
72	head
73	ear	Tas
74	eye
75	nose
76	mouth	Pin
77	tooth
78	tongue (organ)
79	fingernail
80	foot
81	leg
82	knee
83	hand	Tur
84	wing
85	belly
86	guts
87	neck
88	back
89	breast
90	heart
91	liver
92	to drink	Phaja
93	to eat	Khir
94	to bite
95	to suck
96	to spit
97	to vomit
98	to blow	Huwis
99	to breathe
100	to laugh
101	to see	K'ane
102	to hear	Ŋiso
103	to know	Jaman
104	to think	Akhan
105	to smell
106	to fear
107	to sleep	T'aŋan
108	to live	Pintan
109	to die
110	to kill
111	to fight	Hekhaj
112	to hunt
113	to hit
114	to cut	Ŋopis
115	to split
116	to stab
117	to scratch
118	to dig
119	to swim	Tanphir
120	to fly	Winaj
121	to walk
122	to come	Iturrummani
123	to lie (as in a bed)	Senajoŋ
124	to sit	Khopisoŋ
125	to stand	Seniroŋ
126	to turn (intransitive)
127	to fall	Phumir
128	to give	P'an
129	to hold
130	to squeeze
131	to rub
132	to wash	Jot'an
133	to wipe
134	to pull
135	to push
136	to throw
137	to tie
138	to sew
139	to count
140	to say	Sanu
141	to sing	Surmaj
142	to play	Nomthir
143	to float
144	to flow
145	to freeze
146	to swell
147	sun	Jeŋur
148	moon
149	star
150	water	Ŋes
151	rain	Wenismos
152	river
153	lake
154	sea
155	salt
156	stone
157	sand
158	dust
159	earth
160	cloud
161	fog
162	sky
163	wind	Huh
164	snow
165	ice
166	smoke
167	fire
168	ash	Hamk'
169	to burn
170	road
171	mountain	Nirip
172	red
173	green
174	yellow
175	white
176	black
177	night
178	day	Mora/Pharam
179	year
180	warm	Rukhon
181	cold	Josap
182	full
183	new
184	old
185	good	K'orthi
186	bad	Misik
187	rotten
188	dirty
189	straight
190	round
191	sharp (as a knife)
192	dull (as a knife)
193	smooth
194	wet
195	dry
196	correct	P'owem
197	near
198	far
199	right
200	left
201	at	locative
202	in	Nas
203	with	Ŋa (COM)
204	and	Mejo
205	if
206	because
207	name