Vårfolgsk

Vårfolgian/Varfolgian Vårfolgsk
Type
Fusional
Alignment
Nominative-Accusative
Head direction
Head-Initial
Tonal
Yes
Declensions
Yes
Conjugations
Yes
Genders
Yes
Nouns decline according to...
Case	Number
Definiteness	Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice	Mood
Person	Number
Tense	Aspect

Introduction

Vårfolgsk is a North Germanic language related to Norwegian, Faroese, Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish. It forms a separate branch from Old Norse. It is neither a descendant from East or West Norse, though it has features from both of them. Vårfolgsk means "our people" (I didn't steal that from Swedish). It is spoken in the country of Vårfolg/Varfolg.

Phonology

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labio-dental	Dental	Alveolar	Post-alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Epiglottal	Glottal
Nasal
Plosive
Fricative
Affricate
Approximant
Trill
Flap or tap
Lateral fric.
Lateral app.
Lateral flap

Vowels

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
High
Near-high
High-mid
Mid
Low-mid
Near-low
Low

Writing System

Letter
Sound
Letter
Sound
Letter
Sound

Grammar

Syntax

Word Order

Its basic word order is SVO and has little freedom. It is inverted in questions and when a sentence begins with an adverb. It also has V2 word order, in which finite verbs must be the second constituent in a declarative main clauses. Take the example below.

The population was 15,000.
Folgstalet var 15000.
people-GEN.SG-number-NOM.SG-DEF.NOM.SG.NEUT be.PST.SG.IND 15,000

In this example, var is a finite verb and so is the second constituent.

In 2000, the population was 1500.
Året 2000 var folgstalet 15000.
year-NOM.SG-DEF.NOM.SG.NEUT be.PST.SG.IND people-GEN.SG-number-NOM.SG-DEF.NOM.SG.NEUT 15,000

Here the verb is the 2nd constituent, though it is not the 2nd word. året 2000 counts as 1 constituent. The subject follows the verb, then the object follows the subject. The exception to V2 word order comes when forming question. Instead, inversion happens:

Stävån is hungry.
Stävån är soldenn.
Stävån-NOM be.3S.PRS.IND hungry-NOM.SG.MASC

to:

Is Stävån hungry?
Är Stävån soldenn?
be.3S.PRS.IND Stävån-NOM hungry-NOM.SG.MASC

Here the subject and verb are inverted, so it becomes VSO. The verb so is constituent. The inversion still applies when there's an interrogative. The interrogative is at the beginning of the sentence. The basic word order, SVO, is also in dependent clauses. Adjectives precede nouns, but the inverse is common in literature. A noun qualifying another noun are always compounded. The last noun is the head. Here is the full word order.

Conjunction/Fundament	Finite verb	SUBJ	Clausal ADV/NEG	Nonfinite verb	OBJ	Spatial ADV	Temporal ADV

The fundament can be whatever the speaker wants to topicalise. In this way, Varfolgian employs topicalisation by moving to th beginning of the sentence. Common fundaments are adverbs and OBJ, and the default fundament is the SUBJ. But other constituents can be fundaments, include the subordinate clause. If the verb is to be a fundament, the dummy verb, gärve from gerva, is the finite verb. If there is no fundament, then the sentence takes a dummy SUBJ, der from þar. Look at the example below.

A girl came in the door.
Der kvam en gände igägnom dørner.
there come.PST.IND-3S INDEF.FEM.NOM.SG girl-NOM.SG in-through-DAT.SG door-ACC.SG-DEF.ACC.SG

Subordinate Clauses

Subordinate clauses have the same full word order. They can have no fundament as the conjunction replaces the fundament. Complement clauses begin with ä from þat.

He said that he did not want to go.
Hann sagde ä vilde ige gange.
3S.MASC.NOM say.PST.IND-3S that want.PST.IND-3S NEG go-INF

Relative pronouns occupy the conjunction spot. They are interrogatives with the suffix -r/-er. The suffix is -r after a vowel or r, while the suffix -er is after any other consonant.

I know a man who lives in Elsinore.
Je g veyd enn mann hvärr byr i Hälsingøyre.
1S.NOM know.PRS.IND-SG INDEF.MASC.ACC.SG who-NOM.MASC.SG-REL live.PRS.IND-3S in barnacle_goose-DAT.SG-gravel_bank-DAT.SG

Questions

Let's have one more example of a yes/no question. There is no question particle for a yes/no question. Instead, intonation conveys.

You speak Varfolgian.
Dú taler Vårfolgsku.
2S.NOM speak-2S.PRS.IND Varfolgian-.ACC.SG

to:

Do you speak Varfolgian?
Taler dú Vårfolgsku?
speak-2S.PRS.IND 2S.NOM Varfolgian-.ACC.SG

The pronoun used to be suffixed to the verb when it's after the verb, but this no longer happens.

Causatives

It uses the word låde (from láta) which means "let, make". In this example, its usage is quite similar to English.

She made me build the house.
Hon läd meg bygve húset.
3S.NOM.FEM let.PST.IND-3S 1S.ACC build-INF.PRS house-ACC.SG-DEF-ACC.SG.NEUT

In the example below, the intermediate subject is left out, but the 2nd verb is in the INF. This syntax is similar to English's She helped build the house.

She had the house built.
Hon läd meg bygve húset.
3S.NOM.FEM let.PST.IND-3S build-INF.PRS house-ACC.SG-DEF-ACC.SG.NEUT

Example Sentences

I eat fish today.
Jeg äd fisk idag.
1S.NOM eat.PRS.IND-1S fish-NOM.SG in-day-ACC.SG

Today, I eat fish.
Idag äd jeg fisk .
in-day-ACC.SG eat.PRS.IND-1S 1S.NOM fish-NOM.SG

I want to drink coffee today.
Jeg vill dräge svartvadn idag
1S.NOM want-PRS.IND.SG drink-INF.PRS black-NEUT.ACC.SG-water-ACC.SG in-day-ACC.SG

Today, I want to drink coffee.
Idag vill jeg dräge svartvadn.
in-day-ACC.SG want-PRS.IND.SG 1S.NOM drink-INF.PRS black-NEUT.ACC.SG-water-ACC.SG

Päd saw Jude.
Päd såg Judu.
Peter-NOM see.PST.IND-3S Jude.ACC

Yesterday, Päd saw Jude.
Igår såg Päd Judu.
in-yesterday see.PST.IND-3S Peter-NOM Jude.ACC

Whom did she see?
Hvärt såg hon?
who-NEUT.ACC.SG see.PST.IND-3S 3S.NOM.FEM

Did she see him?
Såg hon hann?
see.PST.IND-3S 3S.NOM.FEM 3S.ACC.MASC

Nouns

They are divided into 2 classes: Strong and Weak. These are divided further into stem class, by their morphophonological characteristics.

Strong Nouns

There are 2 Neuter classes and 3 Common (Common means Masculine and Feminine). The Common Class is subdivided into R Class, I Class, and O Class. The R Class had the endings -ir (I Subclass), -ar (A Subclass), and -r (R Subclass).

The r Class can be divided into A Subclass (hamer, from hamarr), I Subclass (häller, from hellir), and R Subclass (arm, from armr). They are named so because of their historical endings (-ar, -ir, and -r, respectively). The Masculine A Sublass tends towards Genitive -s (though many don't). The same can be said of the R Subclass tending towards -er GEN (Genitive).

Strong Masculine R Class Declension

	arm (arm)		hamer (hammer)		häller (cave)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	arm	armer	hamer	hamrer	häller
ACC		arme		hamre	hälle	hälle
GEN	arms		hamers		hälles
DAT	arme	ørmum	hamre	hømrum	hälle	hällum

Some I Subclass nouns have ve-stem reflexes.

There are I Class Nouns (tid, from tíðr) and O Class Nouns for the Feminine Nouns. The O Class descended from Proto-Germanic Ō Nouns. The O Class can be further divided into V Subclass (ør, from ǫr), J Subclass (häl, from hęl), I Subclass (ärm, from ermr), and O Subclass (gøv, from gjǫf). The I Class had the ending -ir. The ending is far more common than the historical -ar ending, but some nouns still had the ending -ar. These nouns belong to the O Subclass (. The nouns that were O Subclass but had the -ir ending belong to the IO Group (øgn, from ǫgn). The V subclass has the ve- reflex. The J Subclass descends from Proto-Germanic Jō Nouns, while the I Subclass descends from Proto-Germanic Ijō Nouns. Strong Feminine Nouns have Masculine PL except for the NOM.PL and ACC.PL being the same. Many don't have any inflectional distinction in SG except the GEN.

Strong Feminine O Class Declension

	Gøv (gift)		Häl		Ärm (sleeve)		Ør (arrow)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	gøv	gäver	Häl	Häljer	ärm	ärmer	ør	ørver
ACC					ärme
GEN	gäver	gäve	Häljer	Hälje	ärmer	ärme	ørver	ørve
DAT	gøv	gøvum	Hälju	Häljum	ärme	ärmum	øru	ørum

Neuter has 2 Classes: V Class (träd, from tré) and A Class. The A Class can be subdivided into A Subclass (blod, from blót), J Subclass (näs, from nęs), and U Subclass (barn, from barn). The V Class descend from Proto-Germanic Wą Nouns, and has Hvast Brydende. The A Class descend from Proto-Germanic Ą Nouns, exactly like the A Subclass. The J Subclass descends from Proto-Germanic Ją Nouns. The U Subclass are the same as A Subclass except they get u-umlaut in PL. Neuter GEN and DAT mirror the Masculine Declension. 

Strong Neuter A Class Declension

	barn (baby)		näs (ness)		kläde (cloth)		rige (power)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM/ACC	barn	børn	näs		kläde		rige
GEN	barns	barne	näss	näsje	klädes	kläde	riges	rige
DAT	barne	børnum	näsje	näsjum	kläde	klädum	rige	rigum

Strong Neuter V Class Declension

	träd (tree)		høgv (strike)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM/ACC	träd		høgv
GEN	träs	trjå	høgs	høgve
DAT	trä	trjåm	høgve	høgum

Weak Nouns

One main feature is that they form a NOM-OBLQ case dynamic, wherein only NOM is distinct from the other cases. The other cases are the same. They descended from nouns that had a nasal suffix as a case marker. The suffix was lost except in Neuter and Feminine GEN.PL (termed the N Substrate in a few grammar books). 

The PL Masculine declension is the same as the Strong Masculine Declension PL. They include nouns with -inge and weak versions of Strong Nouns, names, and endings. The NOM and OLBLQ used to end in -i and -a, respectively. Then neutralisation of wordfinal a and i, merging all cases in the SG. The Weak MASC nouns are known as the I Class,(boge from bogi) because of their historic endings.

Weak Masculine I Class Declension

	boge (bow)		bandinge (prisoner)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	boge	boger	bandinge	bandinger
ACC		boge		bandinge
GEN
DAT		bogum		bøndingum

The Weak FEM Nouns are known as O Class, because they descend from Proto-Germanic Ǫ nouns. They are subdivided into J Subclass (ävje from efja) and A Subclass (eyge from eiga). The J Subclass end in -je, while the A Subclass end in -e. The A Subclass is named so because they used to end in -a , likewise the J Subclass used to end in -ja. In addition, The A Subclass gets umlauted, while the J Subclass doesn't. Some nouns have their GEN.PL used as collectively, and others used to have the DEF attached in the GEN.PL, but no longer, very few nouns, do. They belong to the AD Group (sage from saga) (A Subclass) and JD Group (gydje from gyðja) (J Subclass).

Weak Feminine O Class Declension

	varte (wart)		sage (saga)		gydje (goddess)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	varte	vørtur	sage	søgur	gydje	gydjur
ACC	vørtu		søgu		gydju
GEN		vartne		sagenne		gydjenne
DAT		vørtum		søgum		gydjum

As for the NEUT nouns, their NOM and ACC are the same, and because of the Weak inherent property of a NOM-OBLQ dynamic, all the cases have merged in the SG. The NEUT Weak nouns are known as the N Class (åuge from auga). The N Class contains 6 body part nouns (åuge) and objects (sime).

Weak Neuter N Class Declension

	åuge (eye)		sime (rope)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM/ACC	åuge	åugu	sime	simu
GEN		åugne		simne
DAT		åugum		simum

The FEM nouns have an additional 0 Class (äve from ævi), which do not decline. They're abstract nouns and so only have one form. However, lyge has a declining PL.

Weak Feminine 0 Class Declension

	äve (life)		glädje (happiness)		lyge (lie)
Case	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM/ACC	äve		glädje		lyge	lyger
GEN						lyge
DAT						lygum

Verbs

Verbs conjugate in person, number, present and past tense, and indicative, subjunctive, and imperative mood. Though there is repetition, the verb type determines the pattern by which it conjugates. SUBJ shows the largest and widest spread pattern, with both Weak and Strong verbs having the endings -e, -er, -e, -em, -ed, -e for 1S, 2S, 3S, 1P, 2P, and 3P respectively, except for a minor variation in Strong III, Strong IV, and Strong IV.

The -ing suffix is used to form a verbal noun/gerund. the PRS.PTCP used to be used for the verbal noun, but it ceased to be productive. The PRS.PTCP declines weakly in SG and strongly in PL. It is a Weak ADJ, and also used to denote agent nouns, though also -er takes that function. It also denotes being able to perform an action.

The case of an object of a verb is lexically-assigned. Most take ACC objects, but some take ACC primary and DAT secondary objects (gäve, colloquial gi from geva), while others have ACC, GEN, and DAT direct objects.

The PST.PTCP that ends in -t doesn't decline.

Strong Verbs

Strong verbs conjugate by ablaut, unlike Weak verbs. Like Weak verbs, Strong verbs use umlaut and inflections, but much less so. Although the inflections and umlaut are the same throughout the Strong paradigm, there are different ablaut patterns. These patterns classify the Strong conjugations.

If there are 2 vowels in the pattern, such as in the VI Class and some of Class VII, the 2nd vowel is used for all PST forms. If there are 3, the 2nd is for IND.PST and the 3rd for all other PST forms. The 1st is used for the remaining forms. There are some verbs which have the 4th vowel. The 4th vowel appears only in the PST.PTCP. There is sometimes also a 5th vowel which either only appears in the INF or in the PRS 1~3S.

The PST.PTCP follows the pronominal declension of -enn.

Strong Class I, Strong Class II

I: i, ey, i, i II: ú/jú/y, åu, u, (o), y		rise (Strong Verb I) rise						by (Strong Verb II) bid
		INF	rise	IMP	ris	PRS.PTCP	risende	INF	by	IMP	byd	PRS.PTCP	bydende
		PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP
		N	riset	M	risenn	F	risen	N	bodet	M	bodenn	F	boden
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
Present	Indicative	ris	riss		risum	rised	rise	byd			bydum	byded	byde
	Subjunctive	rise	riser	rise	risem			byde	byder	byde	bydem
Past	Indicative	reys	reyst	reys	risum	risud	risu	båud	båudt	båud	budum	budud	budu
	Subjunctive	rise	riser	rise	risem	rised	rise	bjøde	bjøder	bjøde	bjødem	bjøded	bjøde

The ø is a result of changing short y to ø.

The Class III, Class IV, and Class V had -i rather than -a in PST.SUBJ.1S. Class III verbs that end in -n and -g have u as the vowel root in PST.PTCP. These verbs belong to the N Subclass. The Class III verbs that don't end in -n and -g are of the A Subclass, because of their PST.IND root vowel (though that applies to the N Subclass aswell). The Class IV and Class V verbs are the same except for their PST.PTCP, where Class IV has o and Class V has e/ä. In general, a Class III stem has 2 consonants following a vowel, a Class IV one has a single sonorant following a vowel, and Class V has a single non-sonorant.

Strong Conj III, Strong Conj IV, Strong Conj V

III: i/ä/jä, a, u, (u/o) IV: ä/o, a, å, (u/o) V: ä/i, a, å, (ä)		brinne (Strong Verb III) burn						bire (Strong Verb IV) bear/carry						gäve (Strong Verb V) give
		INF	bränne	IMP	bränn	PRST.PTCP	brännende	INF	bire	IMP	bär	PRST.PTCP	bärende	INF	gäve	IMP	gäv	PRS.PTCP	gävende
		PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP
		N	brunnet	M	brunnenn	F	brunnen	N	boret	M	borenn	F	boren	N	gävet	M	gävenn	F	gäven
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
Present	Indicative	bränn			brännum	bränned	bränne	bär			bärum	bäred	bäre	gäv			gävum	gäved	gäve
	Subjunctive	bränne	bränner	bränne	brännem			bäre	bärer	bäre	bärem			gäve	gäver	gäve	gävem
Past	Indicative	brann	brandt	brann	brannum	brannud	brannu	bar	bard	bar	bårum	bårud	båru	gav	gavd	gav	gåvum	gåvud	gåvu
	Subjunctive	brynne	brynner	brynne	brynnem	brynned	brynne	bäre	bärer	bäre	bärem	bäred	bäre	gäve	gäver	gäve	gävem	gäved	gäve

Class VI verbs are cognate to English's take/took/taken. The Class VII verbs are further divided into Subclasses: The L Subclass (o, ä)(blode from blóta), E Subclass (ey, ä)(heyde from heita), A Subclass (a/å, ä, (ø/i))(gråde from gráta), O Subclass (åu, y, (u/ey))(hlåube from hlaupa), J Subclass (a/ø, y, jo)(høgve from hǫggva), and Y Subclass (ú, y, y)(búgve from búa). The L Subclass's ablaut came from Old Norse's longvowel ablaut (ó, é, œ). The 4th ablaut vowel in fare is only found in 1P.IND.PRS.

Strong Conj VI, Strong Conj VII

VI: a, o, ä, ø/ä, ä VII: variable		fare (a, o) (go)						gråde (å, ä) (weep)
		INF	fare	IMP	far	PRS.PTCP	farende	INF	gråde	IMP	gråd	PRS.PTCP	grådende
		PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP
		N	faret	M	farenn	F	faren	N	grådet	M	grådenn	F	gråden
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
Present	IND	fär			førum	fared	fare	gräd			grådum	gråded	gråde
	SUBJ	fare	farer	fare	farem			gråde	gråded	gråde	grådem
Past	IND	for	fort	for	forum	forud	foru	gräd	grädst	gräd	grädum	grädud	grädu
	SUBJ	färe	färer	färe	färem	färed	färe	gräde	gräded	gräde	grädem	gräded	gräde

Class C Verbs

They are strong verbs with a consonant which got lost but resisted in some places. It can be subdivided into 2 Subclasses: G Subclass (slå from slá) and R Subclass (snúe from snúa). The G Subclass had a velar which got lost except in the PST.IND.PL, PST.SUBJ, and PST.PTCP. The R Subclass have r in the weak PST. They can be of Class I~VII. For example, slå is a Strong R VI verb, while snúe is a Strong R II verb. 

Strong Conj R, Class C

R II: ú/jú/y, ø, ø, (o), y		snúe (turn)
		INF	snúe	IMP	snúdú	PRS.PTCP	snúende
		PST.PTCP
		N	snøret	M	snørenn	F	snøren
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
Present	Indicative	sny	snyrdu	snyr	snúm	snúed	snúe
	Subjunctive	snúe	snúer	snúe	snúem
Past	Indicative	snøre	snører	snøre	snørum	snørud	snøru
	Subjunctive				snørem	snøred	snøre

The G Subclass forms where the velar got lost had vowels which got lengthened, which is why å is not part of the paradigm. It came from á, which was lengthened a.

Strong Conj G, Class C

G VI: a, o, ä, ä, ä		slå (slay)
		INF	slå	IMP	slådú	PRS.PTCP	slånde
		PST.PTCP
		N	släget	M	slägenn	F	slägen
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
Present	IND	slä	slär		slåm	slåed	slå
	SUBJ	slå	slåer	slåe	slåem		slåe
Past	IND	slo	sloddú	slo	slogum	slogud	slogu
	SUBJ	släge	släger	släge	slägem	släged	släge

Weak Verbs

They distinguish the tenses by adding a suffix with d. This is the main characteristic of Weak verbs. The SUBJ.PST take PRS.SUBJ endings. The IND takes the endings of SUBJ, changing the inflectional vowel to u. The d is preceded by e in some verbs, making the PST trisyllabic. There are 3 Weak Classes. These can be divided into Subclasses.

Class I Verbs

They have an -j/-e suffix. The -e used to be -i in Old Norse. They are divided into 2 Subclasses: J Subclass (glädje from glęðja) and I Subclass (däme from dœma). The J Subclass had the form which descended from Proto-Germanic -j-, while the I Subclass's form descended from Proto-Germanic -ij-. These suffixes were lost and caused i-umlaut. The J Subclass has vowel alternation since there are forms (PST.PTCP and PST.IND) that didn't get i-umlaut because they didn't have the suffix, while the I Subclass has vowel alternation in all forms.

Many verbs are derived by i-umlaut of the 2nd ablaut vowel of a Strong paradigm, forming the CAUS. For example, bränne (to burn.TRAN) derives from brinne (to burn.INTR). The -ing and -ning suffixes are used to denote the verbal noun. They're added to finite forms of the verb. The verbal noun is FEM. The J subclass's non-umlaut form gets affixed by -ing/-ning to form the verbal noun, for example, spurning is derived from spyrje.

Weak Conj J, Class I

		glädje (gladden)						spyrja (ask)
		INF	glädje	IMP	gläd	PRS.PTCP	glädjende	INF	spørje	IMP	spør	PRS.PTCP	spørjende
		PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP
		N	gladt	M	gladd	F	glødd	N	spurt	M	spurd	F	spurd
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
PRST	IND	gläd			glädjum	glädjed	glädje	spør			spørjum	spørjed	spørje
	SUBJ	glädje	glädjer	glädje	glädjem			spørje	spørjer	spørje	spørjem
PST	IND	gladde	gladder	gladde	gladdum	gløddud	gløddu	spurde	spurder	spurde	spurdum	spurdud	spurdu
	SUBJ	glädde	glädder	glädde	gläddem	glädded	glädde	spørde	spørder	spørde	spørdem	spørded	spørde

Weak Conj I, Class I

		däme (judge)						følge (follow)
		INF	däme	IMP	däm	PRS.PTCP	dämende	INF	følge	IMP	følg	PRS.PTCP	følgende
		PRS.PTCP						PRS.PTCP
		N	dämt	M	dämd	F	dämd	N	følgt	M	følgd	F	følgd
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
PRS	IND	däme	dämer		dämum	dämed	däme	følge	følger		følgum	følged	følge
	SUBJ	dämer		däme	dämem			følger		følge	følgem
PST	IND	dämde	dämder	dämde	dämdum	dämdud	dämdu	følgda	følgder	følgde	følgdum	følgdud	følgdu
	SUBJ				dämdem	dämded	dämde				følgdem	følgded	følgde

Class II Verbs

It is marked by a consistent -e suffix, with no i-umlaut. It contains INC verbs with -ne (vagne from vakna), Casuals and from ADJ in -ig in -ge, ITER in -se, DIMIN in -le, and verbs in -je, -ve, -re. The -n suffix is applied to the INF to derive FEM nouns. It is divided into O Subclass and U Subclass (blåne from blána). The O Subclass has the -ød suffix in PST.IND 1~3PL and PST.PTCP-FEM, while the U Subclass uses -ud instead. The U Subclass also doesn't have any vowel alternation. The ø in the -ød has variable pronunciation, but in standard Vårfolgsk it is pronounced as reduced a.The O Subclass can be divided into the O Group (bode from boða) and A Group (kalle from kalla). The A Group has its vowel root affected by the suffix -ød. The vowel becomes ø. This also happens in 2P.PRS.IND, though that doesn't have -ød. The A Group is named so because only verbs which have a as the last root vowel belong to the Group.. The O Group also has the suffix -ød, but it has no vowel alternation. It is of very few verbs since many regularised and became of the U Subclass.

Weak Conj II

		bode (bode)						kalle (call)
		INF	bode	IMP	bode	PRS.PTCP	bodende	INF	kalle	IMP	kalle	PRS.PTCP	kallende
		PST.PTCP						PST.PTCP
		N	bodet	M	boded	F	bodød	N	kallet	M	kalled	F	køllød
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
PRST	IND	bode	boder		bodum	boded	bode	kalle	kaller		køllum	kalled	kalle
	SUBJ	boder		bode	bodem			kaller		kalle	kallem
PST	IND	bodade	bodader	bodade	bodødum	bodødud	bodødu	kallade	kallader	kallade	køllødum	køllødud	køllødu
	SUBJ				bodadem	bodaded	bodade				kalladem	kalladed	kallede

Class III Verbs

It has i-umlaut in SUBJ.PST. This Class is also divided into Subclasses A (vage from vaka) and U (duge from duga). The A Subclass has its vowel affected by suffixes that have u, in other words, PRS.2P.IND and PST.IND.1P~3P. It is also of verbs that contain a as the last vowel root. Meanwhile, the U Subclass has no vowel alternation except for the i-umlaut.

Strong Conj III

		vage (be awake)						duge (help)
		INF	IMP	PRS.PTCP		PST.PTCP		INF	IMP	PRS.PTCP		PST.PTCP
		vage	vag	vagende		vaget		duge	dug	dugende		duget
		1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P	1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
PRS	IND	vage	vager		vøgum	vaged	vage	duge	duger		dugum	duged	duge
	SUBJ		vager	vage	vagem				duger	duge	dugem
PST	IND	vagde	vagder	vagde	vøgdum	vøgdud	vøgdu	dugde	dugder	dugde	dugdum	dugdud	dugdu
	SUBJ	vägde	vägder	vägde	vägdem	vägded	vägde	dygde	dygder	dygde	dygdem	dygded	dygde

Present-Preterite Verbs

They form their PRS using Strong ablaut PST. The PST is weak. They're also known as Irregular Verbs. These verbs are special in that they don't conjugate by person or number, though the PST.IND and PRS.IND conjugates by number. They all have indeclineable PST.PTCP, and some don't have a PST.PTCP.

Irregular Strong Conj V

I V: ä/i, a, å, (ä)		väre (be)
		INF	väre	PRST.PTCP	värende	PST.PTCP	väret
		SG			PL
Imperative		vär
Present	IND	är			äru
	SUBJ	sä
Past	IND	var			våru
	SUBJ	väre

Irregular Conj

			eyge	-	mäge
IND	PRS	SG	å	knå	må
		PL	eygu	knägu	mägu
	PST	SG	ådde	knådde	mådde
		PL	åddu	knåddu	måddu
SUBJ	PRS		eyge	knäge	mäge
	PST		ädde	knädde	mädde
IMP			eyg	knäg	mäg
PTCP	PRS		eygende	knägende	mägende
	PST		ådt	-	mådt
INF	PST		-	knåddu	-

Irregular Conj

			skylde	kunne	turve
IND	PRS	SG	skal	kann	tarv
		PL	skulu	kunnu	turvu
	PST	SG	skylde	kunne	turvde
		PL	skyldu	kunnu	turvdu
SUBJ	PRS		skyle	kunne	turve
	PST		skylde	kynne	tyrvde
IMP			skyld	kunn	turv
PTCP	PRS		skyldende	kunnende	turvende
	PST		skyldet	kunnet	turvt
INF	PST		skyldu	-	-

Irregular Conj

			monu	mune
IND	PRS	SG	mon	man
		PL	munu
	PST	SG	mynde	mundu
		PL	myndu	mundu
SUBJ	PRS		myne	mune
	PST		mynde
IMP			mun
PTCP	PRS		munende
	PST		-	munet
INF	PST		mundu	-

Irregular Conj

			unne	vide
IND	PRS	SG	ann	veyd
		PL	unne	vidu
	PST	SG		visse
		PL		vissu
SUBJ	PRS			vide
	PST		ynne	visse
IMP			unn	vid
PTCP	PRS		unnende	vidende
	PST		undt	videt

Particles and Suffixes

The REF pronoun, seg from sig, is used for middle/PASS voice, and is also known as the Reciprocal Particle. Its declension is in the Pronouns and Adjectives section. It used to a suffix, but it ceased to be used. The particle is used instead.

The NEG suffix used to be for negation, but it became the Nonfactive suffix. Negation is now conveyed by using äge/ge. The short form, äg, is much more common in usage. The suffixed verb can be rendered as know.2S.PRS-NFAC (i believe you know) as opposed to know.1S.PRS know.2S-PRS. The Factive aspect requires periphrastic construction, as shown above. It can only be used for 1S, otherwise perphrastic construction requires (know.2S.PRS know.2S-PRS "you believe you know"). The suffix is -t after a vowel, -et after a consonant.

Pronouns and Adjectives

Pronouns and ADJ decline differently. However, in usage they have a less clear boundary. ADJ modifies nouns, but can be standalone (godt "good thing"). GEN.PL and DAT.PL are not distinguished in gender in both ADJ and pronouns. The NOM.NEUT and ACC.NEUT end in -t when the root vowel is short or when it's after a consonant, while -dt when the root vowel is long.

Pronouns

Interrogatives and Relatives

Here's a table of interrogatives.

Interrogatives	Meaning	Gloss
hvär	what/who/whether/which of many/what sort/each of many	what
hvar	to what degree/where	where
hvargärve	in what manner/in what state	where-do
hvärt	whereto	what-NEUT.SG.NOM
hvaden	whence	whence
när	when	when
førerhvi	why	for-what-DAT.NEUT,SG
hvader	which of two/each of two	which_of_two

There are two REL pronouns, -r/-er and som. They can also be ADV and do not decline. The former carries the REL, noninterrogative sense of who, what, why, etc. It is suffixed to the interrogative. The latter, on the other hand, means "as, as if, alike, same as, or about the same time as".

Words like någver, hvader, and hvär have ADJ function. They require a different translation than their pronominal function.

The words in bold have ADJ declension, while in italics conjugate. Only the gärve part conjugates. The -v- part is removed in all forms except the INF. It has ä, ø vowel alternation and is a Weak Verb I.

Here's the declension of hvär and hvader. 

hvär

SG	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	hvär		hvärt
ACC	hvärn	hvärje
GEN	hvärs	hvärrer	hvärs
DAT	hvärjum	hvärre	hvärju
PL	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	hvärer	hvärjer	hvär
ACC	hvärje
GEN	hvärre
DAT	hvärjum

The word hvär's NEUT.SG declension comes Old Norse *hver/hvat declension, while its Common declension comes from Old Norse hverr declension.

hvader

SG	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	hvader	hvår	hvårt
ACC	hvårn	hvåre
GEN	hvårs	hvårrer	hvårs
DAT	hvårum	hvårre	hvåru
PL	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	hvårer		hvår
ACC	hvåre	hvårer
GEN	hvårre
DAT	hvårum

hvader comes from an older form hvaðarr. It is only retained in NOM.SG.MASC.

Possessive and Personal

Det from það declines irregularly pronominally in SG, while in PL it follows the cardinal numeral declension irregularily and is suppletive. It is especially similar to tveyr (from tveir)'s forms It is reduced in dialects to a single vowel and may be spelled differently, much like jeg. The å in hånum may be pronounced differently, most notably like ø/o, and may also be spelled differently.

The 1P and 2P pronounces are also REF, but the 3P uses seg as the REF. The word seg is also for DL and PL. It follows 1P and 2P declension.

1-2P, REF

	1S	1D	1PL	2S	2D	2PL	REF
NOM	jeg	ved	vi	dú	ded	i	-
ACC	meg	og	oss	deg	øg	ød	seg
GEN	minn	oger	vår	dinn	øger	ødver	sinn
DAT	mär	ogum	oss	där	øgum	ød	sär

3P

	3S.MASC	3S.FEM	3S.NEUT	3D	3PL.MASC	3PL.FEM	3PL.NEUT
NOM	hann	hon	det	tveyr*	dey	där	dåu
ACC		håne			då
GEN	hans	hänner	däss		deyrre
DAT	hånum	hänne	dvi		deym

• Its declension will be shown later.

The GEN of these pronouns are also POSS. They are minn, dinn, sinn, oger, øger, vår, and ødver. The words min, sin, and din are the same in declension. They end in -n so they're called the N Possessive Class, or N Class. The second class is the G Class, which is øger and oger. They are called so because they have hardening. In addition, they do not decline. Finally, vår and ødver don't belong to any class, and are thus "irregular".

minn (N Class)

SG	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	minn	min	midt
ACC		mine
GEN	mins	minner	mins
DAT	minum	minne	minu
PL	MASC	FEM	NEUT
NOM	min	miner
ACC		mine	miner
GEN	minne
DAT	minum